Personality is a comprehensive term that describes our attitudinal, emotional, and behavioural response to experiences in our environment. Researchers generally describe personality as being composed of 5 relatively independent traits, often described as the "Big Five" (Barrick, Mount, & Li, 2013; Gottschling, & Spinath, 2012; Mottus, Johnson, & Deary, 2012; Woods, Lievens, Fruyt, & Wille, 2013).

Name and descibe the traits that are in the "Big Five'.

1. Extraversion: The extent to which individuals are socially outgoing and inclined to engage in social interaction, as opposed to being shy and withdrawn. 2. Agreeableness: The tendency of people to empathise and get along with others, such as being warm and compassionate compared to being distant and agressive. 3. Openness: The extent to which people are curious and seek new experiences, such as embracing new ideas and having a wide range of interests versus being narrow and close-minded. 4. Conscientiousness: The tendency of individuals to follow through on their commitments and to be organised and responsible, such as reliable and thorough as compared to being shortsighted, scattered, and disorganised. 5. Neuroticism: The tendency of people to be vulnerable to negative emotions and to view the world as threatening, such as anxious, tense, and worrisome versus emotionally stable, positive, and balanced.

What is temperament?

Temperament is generally described as our relatively consistent INCLINATIONS to respond to events in the environment in particular ways (Shiner et al., 2012). For example, if we tend to have strong emotional reactions to happenings in the daily news, whereas a friend has little reaction, our different temperament could be the cause.

What determines an individual's temperament?

Temperament is determined in large part by our genes, and patterns appear early in life (Rutter, 2010). Identical twins reared in different homes often have similar temperaments (Casalin, Luyten, Vliegen, & Meurs, 2012). For example, some infants tend to react positively to new experiences in life (Rutter, 2011), such as the willingness to try new foods and adjust to change, whereas others are more irritable and "difficult" and react negatively to new situations. Another example, is Abang Dan and Kak Nel going to tadika. Abang Dan tak nangis, while Kak Nel nangis nak mak.

Does temperament influence our overall personality development?

Yes it does (Casalin et al., 2012; Thompson, Winer, & Goodvin, 2011; Walters, 2011). For example, children with irritable and anger-prone temperaments are often low in openness and agreeableness, which can cause negative reactions from others and result in them having a hard time making friends (Bridgett et al., 2009; van den Akker, Dekovic, Prinzie, & Asscher, 2010). Also, difficult temperaments are associated with behavioural problems at school and adjustment problems later in life (Christensen, Mitrou, Lawrence, Sanson, & Zubrick, 2011). Our temperament provides us with the raw materials that shape our personalities, but our environments/life experiences 'layer' personality traits onto the early biological temperament (Shiner et al., 2012, p. 440).

Can the environment affect your personality development?

Yes absolutely. For example, suppose someone experiences a traumatic event, such as the death of a parent or sibling, a crippling diseases like cancer, an economic disaster, or even a family move to a strange new city. Factors such as these can influence personality development (Eccles, 2009; Peterson, et al., 2014; Rothbart, 2011). This is true for school environments as well. For instance, making new friends, being bullied, an even transition from elementary to middle school can influence our students' developing personalities (Schunk, Meece, & Pintrich, 2014; Schwerdt & West, 2011).

Among the many environmental influences on personality, what is the most influential?

Parenting is foremost among environmental factors that influences personality development, and a great deal of research has examined different parenting styles. Research indicates that certain parenting styles, general patterns of interacting and disciplining children, promote more healthy development that others (Baumrind, 20015; Baumrind, Larzelete, & Owens, 2010; Gunnoe, 2013).

What are the factors that define parenting styles?

1. Parent's expectations on the child. 2. Level of warmth and responsiveness. 3. The way parents interact with their children.

Researchers have linked parenting styles with general patterns of personality development associated with them. Describe these parenting styles.

1. Authoritative parents. They set high expectations and are warm and responsive. They are firm, caring, and consistent. They explain reasons for rules and frequently interact with their children, who tend to be agreeable, open, conscientious, and successful in school. 2. Authoritarian parents. They have high expectations but tend to be cold and unresponsive. They expect conformity, they don't explain reasons for rules, and they don't encourage verbal give-and-take. Their children tend to be withdrawn, sometimes defiant, and often lack social skills. 3. Permissive parents. They are warm but hold few expectations for their children, who tend to be immature, compulsive, and unmotivated. Used to getting their own way, the children are sometimes disagreeable and have trouble relating to their peers. 4. Uninvolved parents. They have few expectations for their children and are cold and unresponsive. They have little interest in their children, who tend to acquire negative personality traits, lack self-control and long-term goals, and can be disobedient and easily frustrated. To note, parenting styles describe general patterns, and exceptions will exist. We are not doomed to a life of incomplete personality development if we have 'bad' parents.

Parents influence personality development in 3 important ways. Describe them.

1. Effective parents provide a safe and nurturant environment that promotes personal security (Cipriano & Stifter, 2010). 2. Parents who talk with their children and explain the reasons why rules are important, and emphasise the effects of actions on others, promotes social development in their children (Thompson & Newton, 2010). 3. Good parents model effective personality traits that provide their children with concrete examples they can emulate.

Culture provides additional context to one's environment. Describe the cultural differences in parenting styles using examples.

With an authoritative parenting style viewed as desirable, families in the United States and Western Europe tend to encourage independence, competition, and freedom of expression (Chen & Eisenberg, 2013; Spicer et al., 2012). However many families with Asian, African, Middle Eastern, Native American, and Hispanic backgrounds believe in a more collectivist orientation, valuing obedience, deference to authority figures (especially parents), and the importance of the family (Leavell, Tamis-LeMonda, Ruble, Zosuls, & Cabrera, 2012; Spicer et al., 2012). In these cultures, parents combine high demands for obedience with close, supportive parent-child relationships. In addition, many of these cultures treat female children more protectively, tend to be more demanding, and are less likely to grant autonomy to their female children (Dixon, Graber, & Brooks-Gunn, 2008; Domenech, Rodriguez, Donovick, & Crowley, 2009).

According to research, does the Asian "tiger parent" exist?

Contrary to popular perception, tiger parenting (strict and harsh) is not the most typical profile in Chinese American families, and where it does exist, it doesn't lead to optimal adjustment among Chinese American adolescents (Kim, Wang, Orozco-Lapray, Shen, & Murtuza, 2013). And in a study of Korean parents, researchers found a pattern of both authoritative and authoritarian -but not harsh- parenting (Choi, Kim, Kim, & Park, 2013). Similar patterns have been found in other cultures. For example, in a study of Pakistani parenting practices, researchers found that authoritative parenting was positively associated with emotional regulation in adolescents, whereas permissive parenting had the opposite effects (Jabeen, Anis-ul-Haque, & Riaz, 2013).

What do children need from their parents as they grow up?

Regardless of cultural background, children NEED parents to set high expectations on them ALONG WITH the warmth, involvement, and emotional support from parents that it takes to meet those expectations. A long history of research suggests that children will rise to meet expectations, but they need the support necessary to do so. Meeting these high expectations will result in increased self-esteem and high levels of adjustment in adolescents.

What are emotions?

Emotions are feelings that are often short-lived, intense, and specific (Schunk et al., 2014). For example, we've all been ANXIOUS in anticipating a test, and the anxiety might even be quite intense. The feeling is specific to the test, however, and it likely disappears after we're finished, so the anxiety is short-lived. This is the case with most emotions.

Among the "Big Five" personality traits, which one relates to emotions the most?

Neuroticism, which refers to the tendency to experience negative emotions and view the world in a pessimistic way as compared to being positive, stable and balanced. So, emotions are integral to overall personality development.

It is often said that emotions exist in a continuum. Explain what does this mean.

Emotions exists in a range from those that are positive, such as happiness, excitement, hope, pride, and contentment, to a number that are negative, such as boredom, anger, shame, stress, and depression.

Can negative emotions have an adverse impact on the body?

Yes. With respect to general health, well-established links have been found between anxiety, stress, and anger, and the development of cardiovascular disease (Mostofsky, Maclure, Tofler, Muller, & Mittleman, 2013; Roest, Martens, de Jonge, & Denollet, 2010). "The chronic experiences of negative emotions can influence the development of disease via cumulative effect" (DeSteno, Gross, & Kubzansky, 2013, p. 476). Further, negative emotions can produce adverse health outcomes indirectly by influencing decisions and choices (DeSteno et al., 2013). For instance, "anxiety eaters" may gain unhealthy amounts of weight, and serious depression can leave people without the energy to interact with other people or exercise.

Does having positive emotions benefit the body in any way?

Yes. Researchers have identified links between positive emotions and overall health and well-being. "People who experience warmer, more upbeat emotions live longer and healthier lives" (Kok et al., 2013, p. 1123). "Moreover, it appears that positive affect may influence health not only by buffering the effects of stress, but also by inducing positive biological function and marshaling additional healthy beneficial psychosocial resources" (DeSteno et al., 2013, p. 477).

Are emotions simply "feelings" or is there something more to them?

Emotions have cognitive, physiological, and behavioural components (Pekrun, Goetz, Frenzel, Barchfeld, & Perry, 2011). For example, supposed we're confronted by an immediate threat, such as a car running a red light as we're about to enter an intersection. FEAR is the motion we experience, but we also perceive danger (a form of cognition), our muscles tense and our heart rate accelerate (physiological reactions), and we likely slam on our breaks to avoid a collision -a behavioural response.

What is the foundation for the idea of emotional self-regulation?

The cognitive component of emotions is particular significant to emotional self-regulation. This is because it suggests that with AWARENESS -a form of cognition- we have a certain degree of control over our emotions. Therefore, with practice we can move toward the positive end of the emotional continuum (Kok et al., 2013).

What is defined by emotional self-regulation?

The concept of emotional self-regulation (sometimes called emotional regulation or simply emotion regulation) is the processes people use to INFLUENCE the emotions they have, when they have them, and how they express their emotions (Dan-Glauser & Gross, 2013).

What is the purpose of emotional self-regulation?

Emotion regulation helps us cope with our changing environments and accomplish goals.

Emotional self-regulation is an important component of emotional health and overall personality development (Davis, Levine, Lench, & Quas, 2010; Eisenberg, Spinrad, & Eggum, 2010; Thompson et al., 2011). Describe 3 factors why this is true.

1. Emotion regulation allows us to control impulses that may urge us to behave in socially unacceptable ways, such as controlling the impulse to say a rude remark. 2. It helps us manage negative emotions, such as being able to forget about somebody's mistake after initially feeling angry about it. 3. It permits us to consider behaving in socially acceptable ways, such as deciding to talk calmly to the other person about an issue, or simply leaving the scene during a heated argument to calm down.

Describe the 2 components necessary to develop emotional control (Buckley & Saarni, 2009)?

1. First, we must learn to control how, when, and where to express our feelings. 2. Second, we must learn to reinterpret potentially negative events in a POSITIVE light, such as concluding that we simply need to study more effectively instead of being devastated by a low score test. Mastering these two components above marks a significant step in understanding and harnessing our emotions (Aikins & Litwack, 2011). With experience, and particularly through social interactions, both slowly develop over time.

Emotional self-regulation is closely related to emotional intelligence. What is emotional intelligence?

Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive, understand, and MANAGE emotions in ourselves and others, and to use emotional knowledge to enhance cognition (thought) (Humphrey, 2013; Reissland, 2012).

In relation to human diversity, describe 4 differences in emotional self-regulation.

1. A person's age. As we would expect, younger children differ considerably in their emotional self-regulation as compared to older children (Loman & Gunnar, 2010). 2. Gender differences also exists (Rothbart, 2011; Wentzel, Battle, Russel, & Looney, 2010). Boys and girls regulate their emotions differently due to a variety of factors. 3. Cultural differences also exists such as Western culture, which tend to emphasise individualism, are more likely to teach and reinforce individuals' expressions of emotions (Morelli & Rothbaum, 2007; Miller, 2013). Collectivist cultures, such as in Asian countries, are more likely to reward conformity, encourage individuals to think of the common good, and suppress individual emotions for the good of the group. 4. Poverty influences emotional self-regulation in several ways. For example, the physical and psychological challenges that children experience growing up in poverty can inhibit healthy brain development (Hackman & Farah, 2012). Also students, who are worried about their next meal will come from are more prone to depression, anxiety, and behavioural problems (Crossnoe & Cooper, 2010; Kagan, 2010). This is because the challenges that families in poverty face, such as paying bills and putting food on the table, can create home environments where the security needed for healthy emotional development is missing.

Describe, in more detail, the gender differences in emotional self-regulation.

In general, girls are better at both reading and controlling their emotions. Boys are more likely to display anger and aggression, whereas girls tend to report feeling sad, fearful, or guilty. In classrooms, girls are more compliant and less likely to act out (Emmer & Evertson, 2013; Evertson & Emmer, 2013). Explanations for these gender differences include: (a) maturational differences in the brain, that is, the part of the brain responsible for controlling emotions develops more quickly in girls (Rothbard, 2011), (b) hormonal influences (Davila, 2008), and (c) differences in the ways boys and girls are socialised (Kennedy Root & Denham, 2010; Weisgram Bigler, & Liben, 2010). These differences are reflected in the fact that boys are diagnosed as having emotional or behavioural problems much more often than girls (Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2012; Hardman, Drew, & Egen, 2014).

What can we conclude about the presence of emotional stress in developing children?

For all children, some emotional stress can be healthy because it provides experience that can contribute to healthy emotional development (Pulvermuller & Fadiga, 2010). However, emotional challenges that are too great can have a negative impact on emotional self-regulation and overall personality development (Braaten, 2011; Sawyer et al., 2010).

What traits of the "Big Five" are related to academic achievement, particularly in adolescents?

With respect to schools and learning, a strong link exists between academic achievement and openness and conscientiousness. This is likely the result of conscientious students being able to set learning goals, regulate their behaviour, and persist until goals are met. Similarly, students open to experiences may achieve higher because they respect and appreciate knowledge and discovery (Caprara, Vecchione, Alessandri, Gerbino, & Barbaranelli, 2011; Zuffiano et al., 2013).

Are emotions (good and bad) linked with achievement?

For positive emotions, yes it does. Emotions such as enjoyment, hope, and pride, are associated with both motivation and learning (Pekrun et al., 2011), likely because students experiencing positive emotions are able to focus on learning tasks (Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki, Taylor, & Schellinger, 2011; Helmsen, Koglin, & Petermann, 2012). Negative emotions are a bit more complex. For instance, boredom, a sense of hopelessness, and shame -particularly if the shame results from students believing they lack ability- have negative effects on motivation and learning (Linnenbrink, 2007; Pekrun et al., 2011). On the other hand, research suggest that slightly increased levels of anxiety and feelings of guilt -particularly if the guilt results from students believing they didn't try hard enough- can increase persistence on challenging tasks (Tulis & Fulmer, 2013).

Are emotions and emotional self-regulation related to social achievements?

Yes, there are links between emotions and emotional self-regulation with social success and social satisfaction. For example, students who are able to regulate their emotions are happier and better able to make and keep friends that those who exhibit less self-control (Durlak et al., 2011; Helmsen et al., 2012; Kross & Grossman, 2012).

Personality and workplace achievement have been thoroughly researched. Among the "Big Five" personality traits, what features the most towards workplace achievement?

The relationship between high conscientiousness, low neuroticism, and high job performance is one of the best-known findings (Hurtz & Donovan, 2000). These traits are also linked to work motivation and satisfaction (Woods et al., 2013). As we might expect, workers high in extraversion have higher levels of job satisfaction when employed in positions that require a great deal of social interaction, such as sales (Saksvik & Hetland, 2011).

When do the foundations of these workplace personality traits develop and what influences them?

The foundations of good workplace traits begins early in children's lives and is strongly influenced by schooling. "[T]here appears to be an early interaction of personality and work... The pathways of working life and the role of work in identity seem to be set in 'skeletal form' in early years of childhood" (Woods et al., 2013, p. S9).

How does schooling contribute to developing a good working personality?

Researchers believe that schooling is a primary influence on the development of POSITIVE personality traits, such as agreeableness, openness, and conscientiousness, and an importance source of SOCIALISATION for the world of work. For instance, to succeed in school, students must take on duties and responsibilities and commit to role expectations and social norms. They must also be able to delay gratification and to be task and goal directed and organised, all of which contributes to the development of positive personality traits and success in the workplace (Bleidorn, 2012). Further, some research suggests that personality, particularly conscientiousness has a STRONGER influence on success in both school and work performance than does cognitive ability (Zyphyur, Chaturvedi, & Arvey, 2008).

Why should teachers be involved with students' personality development?

1. Our student's don't come to us with personalities that are fixed and unalterable; and schooling can have a positive impact on personality development. 2. Our jobs involve much more than teaching reading, math, history, and other forms of content. It also includes helping students develop positive personality traits associated with school achievement and satisfaction with school, as well as success later in life.

Describe some guidelines we can use to support students' personality development.

1. Learn about students as people. 2. Model positive personality traits. 3. Use concrete examples to teach positive personality traits. 4. Discuss positive personality traits and their relationship with success and achievement. 5. Use an authoritaTIVE classroom management style. Note that we will be focusing on the cognitive component of personality development, because it is largely through awareness and understanding that students can positively alter their personality.

How can we learn about our students as people?

Our students are obviously unique, and in order to best promote their development, we need to know about their unique personality characteristics. We can make formal efforts to learn about our students with simple QUESTIONAIRRES that ask about their favourite foods, hobbies, sports, and other aspects of their lives. Doing so communicates that we're interested in them as human beings and promotes a positive relationship with them. Also, as we INTERACT with students, we will learn a great deal about who is extraverted, open, agreeable, shy, and other personality traits, and we can adapt our instructions accordingly. For example, giving students with low extraversion more reassurance and personal space to answer questions, and over time, they can at least partially overcome their shyness. Or instead of solving the problem, ask students to DESCRIBE something about the problem first.

What is meant by 'goodness of fit' (Rothbard, 2011; Rudasill, Gallagher, & White, 2010)?

Goodness of fit refers to our ability to adapt our work/lesson plan with our students in a way that they are more willing to respond and be active in class.

How important is it that we model positive personality traits?

Arguably, modelling positive personality characteristics is the most effect action we can take in promoting the same characteristics in our students. Modelling openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and emotional stability takes no extra effort, and over time it can increase the likelihood of students developing those same characteristics. With habitual practice and reflection, modelling them will be second nature and we have nothing to lose in doing so. They will make a difference in at least some students, and even if they didn't, we are still happier people as a result of our modelling.

Provide an example of using concrete examples to teach positive personality traits.

Awareness of one's personality is important because students often don't realise that they posses undesirable personality traits. Very few people would describe themselves as disagreeable. Often, we all like to think of ourselves as open, agreeable, conscientious and emotionally stable. However, we can't simple tell students that they are, for example, disagreeable. But we can ILLUSTRATE and DISCUSS desirable and undesirable personality characteristics, and this is what we mean by "use concrete examples to teach positive personality traits." For example, we can formally teach and highlight positive personality traits such as conscientiousness and agreeableness in our lesson plan design. This will capitalise on the cognitive component of personality development. In fact, seeing behaviours and consequences concretely illustrated is more effective than hearing them describe by teachers. For example, it becomes harder for students to be disagreeable when they understand that disagreeableness leads to negative outcomes, and they know that other students are aware of both the trait and the consequences.

How do we discuss with students about positive personality traits and their relationships with success and achievement?

With awareness and thought, students can work to develop positive personality traits. Concrete examples provide a reference point for discussions of personality traits and their impact on success, and discussions centered on the examples are the mechanisms we can use in our attempts to increase students' awareness and understanding. For example, disagreeable people aren't "stuck" with being disagreeable forever. Realising that agreeableness can lead to improved social relationships, they can try to develop this desirable trait. Further, if students understand that openness and conscientiousness are associated with academic success, there also more likely to attempt to develop these characteristics. Again, we have nothing to lose in making our students aware of desirable personality traits and attempting to help them understand how these traits link to academic and social success.

How do we develop and implement an authoritative classroom management style?

We saw that an authoritative parenting style is generally more effective that those that are authoritarian, permissive, or uninvolved. The same tends to be true for classroom management. The interaction styles of EFFECTIVE TEACHERS are SIMILAR to those of EFFECTIVE PARENTS and the description of authoritative parenting strongly parallels recommended classroom management practices (Emmer & Evertson, 2013); Evertson & Emmer, 2013). This suggests that we should set boundaries for our students, provide reasons for our rules, enforce the rules consistently, and explain how rules help protect the rights and feelings of others. Over time, these practices contribute to positive personality traits such as openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness.

What does identity and self-concepts mean in the context of personality development?

Identity: our self-constructed definition of who we are, what our existence means, and what we want in life. Self-concepts: our cognitive assessments of our physical, social, and academic competence.

Who was Erik Erikson (1902-1994)?

Erik Erikson was a German-American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst who addressed issues, such as trust, competence, and intimacy in his work with clients. He also personally wrestled with them in them in what he called a "CRISIS OF IDENTITY" in his own life (Cross, 2001). Based on these experiences he developed a theory of "psychosocial" development. The term psychosocial derives from the INTEGRATION of identity and his belief that people have an innate desire to connect with others, making social factors primary motivators for human behaviour (Erikson, 1968. 1980).

What beliefs did Erikson had in his theory of psychosocial development?

1. Erikson believed that all people have the same basic needs, which center on HUMAN RELATIONS. 2. He also believed that personal development occurs in response to those needs, and healthy development depends on the QUALITY of support provided by the social environment, particularly parents and other caregivers. 3. Like other development psychologist, such as Piaget, he believed that development proceeds in STAGES, each characterised by a CRISIS, a psychosocial challenge that presents opportunities of development. 4. Although crises never permanently resolve, the positive resolution of a crisis at one stage contributes to healthy identity formation and increases the likelihood of a positive resolution at the next.

Provide an example of crisis resolution in any particular stage of Erikson's psychosocial development theory.

For instance, if I generally trust people, Erikson would say that I have positively resolved the 'trust versus mistrust' crisis, and if I feel capable and competent, I've successfully resolved the 'industry versus inferiority' crisis. Similarly, if I am in a meaningful and rewarding relationship with a significant other, he would say that I've positively resolved the 'intimacy versus' isolation crisis. However, failure to resolve a crisis at one or more stages DOES NOT doom people to dysfunctional lives, and we all have personal "flaws". For example, we know people who seem to lack initiative, but function well in roles where initiative isn't a major requirement. Similarly, we know self-described "loners" who have satisfying careers and who seem perfectly happy with their lives.

List down Erikson's eight life-span stages in order.

1. Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth to 1 year) - Trust develops when infants receive consistently loving care. Mistrust results from unpredictable or harsh care. 2. Autonomy vs. Shame (1-3 years) - Autonomy develops when children use their newly formed mental and psychomotor skills to explore their worlds. Parents support autonomy by encouraging exploration and accepting the inevitable mistakes. 3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years) - Initiative, a sense of ambition and responsibility, develops from encouragement of children's efforts to explore and take on new challenges. Overcontrol or criticism can result in guilt. 4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6- 12 years) - School and home provide opportunities for students to develop a sense of competence through success on challenging tasks. A pattern of failure can lead to feelings of inferiority. 5. Identity vs. Confusion (12-18 years) - Adolescents experiment with various roles in an atmosphere of freedom with clearly established limits. Confusion results when home environment fails to provide either the necessary structures or when it is overly controlling, failing to provide opportunities for individual exploration with different identity roles. 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adulthood) - Intimacy occurs when individuals establish close ties with others. Emotional isolation may result from earlier disappointments or a lack of developing identity. 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Adulthood) - Generativity occurs when adults give to the next generation though child rearing, productive work, and contributions to society or other people. Apathy or self-absorption can result from an inability to think about or contribute to the welfare of others. 8. Integrity vs. Despair (Old age) - Integrity occurs when people believe they've lived as well as possible and accept the inevitability of death. Remorse over things done or left undone leads to despair.

Describe some criticisms levied against Erikson's psychosocial theory of development.

Developmental theorists have taken issue with Erikson's work on 4 major points: 1. First, they content that his theory doesn't adequately address the ROLE OF CULTURE in development, which is indeed an important influence in all forms of development (Cole & Cagigas, 2010; Cole & Packer, 2011). For instance, some cultures DISCOURAGE autonomy, initiative, and self-assertiveness in children, instead emphasising on a collective sense of belonging and concern for others (Chen & Eisenberg, 2012). 2. Second, critics point out that Erikson based his theory primarily on his work with MALES, and research suggest that females may take different paths to identity development (DiDonato & Berenbaum, 2013; Gilligan, 1977, 1982, 1998). 3. Third, Erikson based his theory on his personal notes and experiences dealing with clients, and his theory is DIFFICULT TO VALIDATE empirically. Also his work is grounded in the time in which he lived and practice, and it may not accurately explain development changes influenced by our current society and level of technology, which is quite different. 4. Fourth, the dichotomy of Erikson's eight life-span stages may have more factors influencing it than Erikson had accounted for because CONCURRENT crises may occur in each stage and it doesn't necessarily follow a specific sequence. For example, who's to say that a young adult cannot have integrity in her/his leadership roles, described by Erikson to be a crisis occurring in old age. Further, what about teenagers who attend and volunteer at Youth United Nations events believing that they are making contributions to society and future generations; aren't they displaying generativity contradicting Erikson describing it to occur only in adulthood?

What are some contributions Erikson's work had for the field of developmental studies?

1. Erikson's work is intuitively sensible enough, and he was the first to recognise the ROLE that identity formation plays in becoming a productive, happy, adult. 2. In addition, it helped focus on our NEED for relatedness, the innate need to feel loved, connected to, and respected by other people (Deci & Ryan, 2008; Moller, Deci, & Elliot, 2010; Pavey, Greitemeyer, & Sparks, 2010). 3. It also helps OFFER EXPLANATIONS for problems encountered in classrooms. For example, a student, Sean, is feeling that the other students are "out to get him" so he acts out. This may suggest that Sean hasn't positively resolved the trust-distrust crisis. This has left him less able to develop a sense of autonomy, initiative, or industry, which helps us understand why it's affecting his academic work. We've all met people we admire because of their positive outlook, openness, and commitment to making the world better (Prof. Gana). We've also encountered those who believe that others are trying to take advantage of them or are somehow inherently evil (Ezra). We see good minds sliding into lethargy because of a lack of initiative or even substance abuse (Past Self). We become frustrated by people's apathy and lack of zest for living (Xaith). Erikson's theory helps us understand these issues.

What are the contemporary views on identity development that is different from Erikson's "identity crisis"?

Contemporary perspectives view identity development not so much as a crisis, but rather a GRADUAL process of experimenting with different potential life decisions and ultimately deciding on a course of action (Marcia, 1980, 1987, 2010).

Researches interviewed adolescents and found that young people's decisions can be classified into one of four states, which vary in their ability to produce healthy outcomes (Marcia, 1980, 1987, 1999, 2010). Outline these 4 states.

1. Identity diffusion. 2. Identity foreclosure. 3. Identity moratorium. 4. Identity achievement.

What is identity diffusion?

Identity diffusion is a state of identity development that occurs when individuals fail to make clear choices. The state is characterised by haphazard experimentation with different career options. Individuals may not be developmentally ready to make decisions. If it persists over time, it can result in apathy and confusion (Berzonsky, 2011; Berzonsky, Cieciuch, Duriez, & Soenens, 2011).

What is identity foreclosure?

Identity foreclosure is a state of identity development that occurs when individuals prematurely adopt the positions of others such as parents. This usually happens without thoroughly examining the implications for their future.

What is identity moratorium?

Identity moratorium is a state of identity development that occurs when individuals pause and remain in a "holding pattern." Long-range commitment is delayed. It involves exploration without reaching a firm commitment or conclusion. This is a POSITIVE exploratory state that involves thinking and weighing options that may eventually lead to identity achievement.

What is identity achievement?

Identity achievement is a state of identity development that occurs after individuals make decisions about goals and achievements. As we might expect, this is a positive state and many adolescents experience both identity diffusion and identity moratorium before arriving at identity achievement.

In our modern society, when do students typically reach the state of identity achievement?

Research indicates that students reach identity achievement more commonly AFTER -instead of during- high school (Berzonsky, 2011; Duriez, Luyckx, Soenens, & Berznosky, 2012; Kroger, Martinussen, & Marcia, 2010). This is especially true for college students, who have more time to consider what they want to do with their lives and often change their majors a number of times during their college careers (Klimstra, Hale, Raaijmakers, Branje, & Meeus, 2010).

What is sexual identity?

Sexual identity is people's definitions of who they are with respect to gender orientation.

Is sexual identity an important element of identity formation?

Yes, it is of high importance because sexual identity influences student choices ranging from CLOTHES and FRIENDS to the OCCUPATIONS they consider and ultimately pursue (Martin & Ruble, 2010).

What is meant by sexual orientation?

Sexual orientation is the gender to which an individual is romantically and sexually attracted.

Let's talk about homosexuality amongst student population. According to research, how many percent of the student population find sexual orientation as a difficult identity process?

For most of the student population, sexual orientation is not a major issue, but an estimated 3% to 10% of students find it confusing and stressful (Macionis, 2013).

According to research, homosexuals go through a 3-phase sequence in their attempts to understand who they are (Berk, 2013). With respect to this, describe this process.

1. The first phase is feeling different, a slowly developing awareness that they aren't like other children, which is followed by a feeling of confusion, often occurring in adolescents. 2. In the second phase during adolescents, homosexuals attempt to understand their developing sexuality, looking for both social support and role models. 3. Finally in the third phase, the majority of gay and lesbian teenagers accept their homosexuality and share it with those who are close to them.

What is "ethnic identity"?

"Ethnic identity [emphasis added] refers o an individual's sense of belonging to an ethnic group, which is defined by one's CULTURAL HERITAGE, and includes attributes such as VALUES, TRADITIONS, and LANGUAGE." (Brittian, Umana-Taylor, & Derlan, 2013, p. 178)

Why is ethnic identity important, especially for cultural minorities?

Researches suggest that ethnic identity is particularly important for members of cultural minorities living in heterogenous society, because the identity may provide members with a SENSE OF BELONGING and ACCEPTANCE in societies where the majority group sometimes hold negative stereotypes about them. This sense of belonging helps DIFFUSE the negative effects of social devaluation that members of minorities sometimes feel (Brittian et al. 2013).

What is key in the process of fostering ethnic identity?

The family is key in this process (Umana-Taylor, Alfaro, Bamaca, & Guimond, 2009). It is through the family that minority adolescents INVESTIGATE their ethnicity and come to UNDERSTAND what it means to be a member of their ethnic group, and it can be particularly important in societies such as the United States where members of ethnic minorities often believe that majority groups have access to privileges that minority groups don't have. In these contexts, positive ethnic identity can protect individuals' sense of self-wroth (Brittian et al., 2013).

What is self-esteem or self-worth?

Self-esteem is an emotional reaction to, or an evaluation of, the self (Schunk et al., 2014), and it raises a number of personal questions like: 1. Will others like us? 2. Are we perceived as smart? 3. Do people think we are attractive?

Culture plays a role in self-esteem and is particularly important for members pf cultural minorities. What does collective self-esteem refer to?

Collective self-esteem refers to individuals' perception of the relative worth of the groups to which they belong. When these groups are valued by society and perceived as having positive status, personal identities and self-esteem are enhanced (Jaspal & Cinnirella, 2012). The opposite is also true.

In the context of the United States, discuss how young children experience collective self-esteem.

Even very young children know they are members of an ethnic minority, and research dating back nearly 80 years indicates that children who are members of cultural minorities such as African Americans (Clark & Clark, 1939), Mexican Americans (Weiland & Coughlin, 1979), and Chinese Americans (Aboud & Skerry, 1985) evaluate their ethnic reference groups as LESS WORTHY than the White majority. As children who are in ethnic minority groups develop, they become increasingly aware of problems with inequality and discrimination (Brittian et al., 2013 Coker et al., 2009). These problems are especially acute for recent immigrants, who also face language barriers (Click & Bates, 2010; Hernandez, Denton, & Macartney, 2010).

What are some of the hardships faced by cultural minorities?

Many cultural minorities experience hardship linked to poverty, crime, and drug-use, and schools that are UNRESPONSIVE to their needs can retard the development of self-esteem (Jaspal & Cinnirella, 2012; Olmedo, 2009). Unique challenges often exist for students who are members of ethnic minorities, and sensitive teachers are crucial in helping these students form positive, healthy identities.

What happens to students with positive ethnic pride?

Students with positive ethnic identities are better adjusted, achieve higher in school, and have more positive beliefs about their ability to cope with their environment (Ghavani, Fingerhut, Peplau, Grant, & Wittig, 2011; Marks, Patton, & Coll, 2011). In addition they are less likely to use drugs or engage in risky behaviours (Brook, Zhang, Finch, & Brook, 2010).

What is self-concept?

Self-concept is the cognitive appraisal of our academic, physical, and social competences (Schunk et al., 2014).

Provide example of positive academic, physical, and social self-concepts.

1. If I BELIEVE I am good at math, I have positive academic self-concept in math. 2. If I BELIEVE I'm a good athlete, I have positive physical self-concept. 3. If I BELIEVE I'm good at getting along with people, I have a positive social self-concept.

How do self-concepts form in individuals?

Self-concepts largely form on the basis of EXPERIENCES and FEEDBACK, and forming healthy self-concepts is important for personal and social development (Kail, 2012).

What is the difference between self-concept and self-esteem?

They are two entirely different concepts. Self-concept is cognitive, whereas, self-esteem (self-worth) is an emotional reaction to the self (Matsumoto & Juang, 2012; Schunk et al., 2014).

What do people with high self-esteem feel?

People who have high self-esteem believe that they are inherently worthy people and feel good about themselves. It's important, because low self-esteem during adolescence predict poor health, criminal behaviour, and limited economic prospects as adults (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger, & Vohs, 2003; Trzesniewski et al., 2006).

Do young children have high self-esteem and positive self-concepts in general?

Yes, young children tend to have both high self-esteem and positive self-concepts -sometimes unrealistically so- probably because of few social comparisons and the support they recieve from parents. This optimism is functional because it encourages young children to TAKE CHANCES and TRY NEW ACTIVITIES (Verchueren, Doumen, & Buyse, 2012).

What happens to the self-esteem and self-concept of children as they transition from elementary to middle and high school?

Self-esteem tends to drop during middle school, probably because of physical changes brought on by puberty and the less personal nature of middle schools. But self-esteem rises again during the high school years- to a greater extent for boys than girls (Matsumoto & Juang, 2012; Harter, 2006; Seaton, Marsh, & Craven, 2010).

How would students form realistic self-concepts?

Self-concepts become more realistic as interactions with others give students more accurate measures of their performance compared to their peers (Schunk et al., 2014; Seaton et al., 2010). As students move into adolescents, self-concept interacts with a developing sense of identity. Each influences the other, and both influence self-esteem (Chen, Hwang, Yeh, & Lin, 2012).

What is the relationship between self-concept and achievement?

A strong and robust relationship exists between self-concept and achievement, and this relationship makes sense intuitively. For example, students who believe they're good at math have this belief because of a history of doing well in math, and the same is true for other academic areas. However, little relationship exists between physical self-concept and achievement (S. Chen et al., 2012). We've all known highly skilled athletes, for example, who are modest achievers. For social self-concept and achievements, it becomes more complex. For instance, believing that we're socially skilled doesn't necessarily translate to achievement, but a link between social competence and achievement has been found beginning with children in early elementary school (Walker & Henderson, 2012).

As teachers, we can strong influence our students' developing identity and academic self-concepts. Describe 4 outlines that can help us to do so.

1. Support autonomy and initiative in your students. 2. Maintain high expectations and provide students with evidence of increasing competence. 3. Create a safe and caring learning community in your classroom. 4. Communicate that students' ethnic backgrounds are valued and contribute to learning.

How do we support autonomy and initiative in students?

As teachers, we can support psychosocial development in a variety of ways. For example, if you're planning to teach in preschool or elementary, you can ENCOURAGE children to complete tasks for themselves and reward them for taking initiative. In middle school or higher levels of education, we can publicly reinforce student's autonomy and initiative with COMMENTS like "I really like it when someone acts on their own and takes the initiative to make our classroom better." With a positive tone, this comment show that the teacher values all personal initiative in the classroom.

What really works to improve students' self-concepts?

Students develop self-concepts on the basis of feedback they receive about their competence. Efforts to improve self-concepts (and self-esteem) directly through activities that focus explicitly on these constructs, such as having minority students study multicultural learning materials, sending children to summer camps, and implementing support groups, are MISGUIDED and largely UNSUCCESSFUL (O'Mara, Marsh, Craven, & Debus, 2006; Schunk et al., 2014). The ONLY legitimate way to improve student's self-concepts is by providing them with evidence that their competence is increasing.

How do we show students that their academic competence is increasing?

Personal improvement is the key to perceptions of increasing competence, and it also helps students achieve a positive resolution of the industry-inferiority crisis. Teachers should emphasise IMPROVEMENTS versus actual scores, and put students' marks on the LAST PAGE of quizzes and exams in a symbolic gesture of deemphasising competition.

How do we create a safe and caring learning community in our classrooms?

We can start with an informal classroom meeting/chat with all the students. A classroom structure that sets predictable limits for acceptable behaviour, combined with the empathy that helps students negotiate the uncertainties of this period in their lives, is important. "Students ... say that they want teachers to articulate and enforce clear standards of behaviour. They view this not just as part of the teacher's job but as evidence that the teacher really cares about them" (Brophy. 2010, p. 24).

Why is it important for teachers to create a safe and caring learning community for ALL students?

At all levels, students need a safe and nurturing learning environment. This is particularly true for students who have exceptionalities and students who are gay or lesbian, who are often mistreated and experience discrimination at the hands of other students (Patrick, Bell, Huang, Lazarakis, & Edwards, 2013). Homosexual students are at greater risk for problems ranging from depression and substance abuse to suicide (McGuire, Anderson, Toomey, & Russey, 2010; Needham & Austin, 201). Peer harassment is a major contributor to these problems. Teachers play an essential role in setting the TONE for your classroom, ensuring that it is a safe place for ALL students.

How do we communicate to students' that their ethnic backgrounds are valued and contribute to learning?

1. The teacher can give a genuine expression of enthusiasm about a student's cultural traditions. 2. The teacher should give affirmations that every student is welcomed and valued in his/her classroom. 3. The teacher can learn simple phrases and gestures in the language of the student. This with have powerful impact on their developing identities and sense of cultural self-worth (Ahrens, DuBois, Lozano, & Richardson, 2010). 4. Teachers can go further by recognising the achievements of ethnic minorities. For instance, providing a short biography of Julian Castro, a politician of Mexican descent, who was elected mayor of San Antonio, Texas, in 2009, reelected in 2011, and appointed to lead the Department of Housing and Urban Development in Obama's cabinet in 2014. As another example, if there is a student of Middle Eastern backgrounds in your class, you could emphasise the contributions of Omar Khayyam, a Persian philosopher and mathematician, who in the 11th and 12th centuries laid down the principles of algebra. Examples for members of all minorities can be found, and emphasising them communicates that you VALUE and RESPECT all backgrounds of all students in your class. Doing so can make an important contribution to their sense of identity and increase their motivation to learn.

What is social development?

Social development describes the advances we make in our ability to interact and get along with others.

Is there a link between social development, school success, and success later in life?

Yes, children who have well-developed social skills achieve at higher levels, have higher self-esteem and fewer behavioural problems, attend school more regularly, and are more satisfied with their school experience (Bornstein, Hahn, & Haynes, 2010; Vaugn et al., 2009; Zins, Bloodworth, Weissberg, Wang, & Wahlberg, 2004).

What is social cognition?

Social cognition refers to the ability to use CUES to understand social interactions, and is the heart of social development (Hughes, Ensor, & Marks, 2010; Parke & Clarke-Steward, 2011).

What is social referencing?

Social referencing is people's ability to use vocal and nonverbal cues to evaluate ambiguous events and regulate their behaviours accordingly. Social referencing is an aspect of social cognition (Pelaez, Virues-Ortega, Field, Amir-Kiaei, & Schnerch, 2013). For example, suppose we're in a social gathering with people we don't know well. Someone tells a story that has an unexpected ending, and we don't know whether to laugh or extend sympathy. So, we wait to see how others react in an effort to behave appropriately.

What influences social development?

As with all forms of development, social development depends on experience, and opportunities to interact with others and observe the consequences of our own and other's interactions are essential for healthy social development. For example, this is the reason why mothers of young children form "play groups" that provide these experiences for toddlers.

Which group strongly influences children's social development?

Parents, siblings and peers are groups that most strongly influence children's early social development. Initially, because of their proximity in the home, parents and siblings play the most important role, and later, as children mature and go to school, peers play a larger role.

Describe how social development begins at home.

Through their interactions with parents and siblings, young children learn how to use social interaction to get what they want (Borstein & Lansford, 2010), and later they use these interactions to begin to understand others (Beisert et al., 2012; Cipriano & Stifter, 2010). Parents who talk to their children about other people's thoughts, feelings, and motives promote young children's social cognition (Gehlbach, Brinkworth, & Harris, 2011; Sanders, 2010). And children learn social skills by observing their parents interact with others (Beisert et al., 2012). Siblings assist in the process of social development. When we're young, we're in constant contact with our families and frequently interact with our brothers and sisters. Competition, negotiation, and compromise are a part of family life, and these experiences also help us acquire social skills (Caspi, 2012).

As children grow older, peers -friends and classmates- play an increasingly prominent role in social development. Their influences exists in 3 areas (Hartup, 2009; Howe, 2010; Parke & Clarke-Stewart, 2011). What are they?

1. Attitudes and values. 2. Opportunities to practice social skills. 3. Emotional support.

How do peers influence children's attitudes and values?

Peers communicate attitudes and values in areas ranging from the importance of schoolwork to definitions of right and wrong (Crossnoe, 2011; Park & Clark-Stewart, 2011). Our choice of friends predicts grades, involvement in school, and even behaviour problems (Matjasko, Needham, Grunden, & Farb, 2010). If peer groups are academically oriented, they promote effort and achievement, but if they reject school values, students are more likely to cut classes, skip school, cheat, and even use drugs. The academic climate in classes in the same school can differ dramatically depending on the dominant peer groups in a particular classroom (Rubin et al., 2010).

How peers provide opportunities to practice social skills?

The extent to which we area able to make friends and establish meaningful relationships in life depends on social skills. Peers, and especially close friends, provide opportunities to PRACTICE these skills (Meadows, 2010; Coplan & Arbeau, 2009). For example, students who have well-developed social skills are ACCEPTED by others, which gives them even more opportunities to practice and refine their social skills, whereas those lacking these skills are often REJECTED by peers, leading to fewer opportunities to practice and develop (Cillessen, Schwartz, & Mayuex, 2011; Mayuex, Houser, & Dyches, 2011; Rubin, Coplan, Chen, Bowker, & McDonald, 2011). Rejected students are often impulsive and aggressive, and over time they tend to withdraw. As a result, their learning and development suffer (Bellmore, 2011; Swearer, Espelage, Vaillancourt, & Hymel, 2010).