| What does identity and self-concepts mean in the context of personality development? | Identity: our self-constructed definition of who we are, what our existence means, and what we want in life.
Self-concepts: our cognitive assessments of our physical, social, and academic competence. |
| Who was Erik Erikson (1902-1994)? | Erik Erikson was a German-American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst who addressed issues, such as trust, competence, and intimacy in his work with clients. He also personally wrestled with them in them in what he called a "CRISIS OF IDENTITY" in his own life (Cross, 2001).
Based on these experiences he developed a theory of "psychosocial" development. The term psychosocial derives from the INTEGRATION of identity and his belief that people have an innate desire to connect with others, making social factors primary motivators for human behaviour (Erikson, 1968. 1980). |
| What beliefs did Erikson had in his theory of psychosocial development? | 1. Erikson believed that all people have the same basic needs, which center on HUMAN RELATIONS.
2. He also believed that personal development occurs in response to those needs, and healthy development depends on the QUALITY of support provided by the social environment, particularly parents and other caregivers.
3. Like other development psychologist, such as Piaget, he believed that development proceeds in STAGES, each characterised by a CRISIS, a psychosocial challenge that presents opportunities of development.
4. Although crises never permanently resolve, the positive resolution of a crisis at one stage contributes to healthy identity formation and increases the likelihood of a positive resolution at the next. |
| Provide an example of crisis resolution in any particular stage of Erikson's psychosocial development theory. | For instance, if I generally trust people, Erikson would say that I have positively resolved the 'trust versus mistrust' crisis, and if I feel capable and competent, I've successfully resolved the 'industry versus inferiority' crisis. Similarly, if I am in a meaningful and rewarding relationship with a significant other, he would say that I've positively resolved the 'intimacy versus' isolation crisis.
However, failure to resolve a crisis at one or more stages DOES NOT doom people to dysfunctional lives, and we all have personal "flaws". For example, we know people who seem to lack initiative, but function well in roles where initiative isn't a major requirement. Similarly, we know self-described "loners" who have satisfying careers and who seem perfectly happy with their lives. |
| List down Erikson's eight life-span stages in order. | 1. Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth to 1 year) - Trust develops when infants receive consistently loving care. Mistrust results from unpredictable or harsh care.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame (1-3 years) - Autonomy develops when children use their newly formed mental and psychomotor skills to explore their worlds. Parents support autonomy by encouraging exploration and accepting the inevitable mistakes.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years) - Initiative, a sense of ambition and responsibility, develops from encouragement of children's efforts to explore and take on new challenges. Overcontrol or criticism can result in guilt.
4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6- 12 years) - School and home provide opportunities for students to develop a sense of competence through success on challenging tasks. A pattern of failure can lead to feelings of inferiority.
5. Identity vs. Confusion (12-18 years) - Adolescents experiment with various roles in an atmosphere of freedom with clearly established limits. Confusion results when home environment fails to provide either the necessary structures or when it is overly controlling, failing to provide opportunities for individual exploration with different identity roles.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adulthood) - Intimacy occurs when individuals establish close ties with others. Emotional isolation may result from earlier disappointments or a lack of developing identity.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Adulthood) - Generativity occurs when adults give to the next generation though child rearing, productive work, and contributions to society or other people. Apathy or self-absorption can result from an inability to think about or contribute to the welfare of others.
8. Integrity vs. Despair (Old age) - Integrity occurs when people believe they've lived as well as possible and accept the inevitability of death. Remorse over things done or left undone leads to despair. |
| Describe some criticisms levied against Erikson's psychosocial theory of development. | Developmental theorists have taken issue with Erikson's work on 4 major points:
1. First, they content that his theory doesn't adequately address the ROLE OF CULTURE in development, which is indeed an important influence in all forms of development (Cole & Cagigas, 2010; Cole & Packer, 2011). For instance, some cultures DISCOURAGE autonomy, initiative, and self-assertiveness in children, instead emphasising on a collective sense of belonging and concern for others (Chen & Eisenberg, 2012).
2. Second, critics point out that Erikson based his theory primarily on his work with MALES, and research suggest that females may take different paths to identity development (DiDonato & Berenbaum, 2013; Gilligan, 1977, 1982, 1998).
3. Third, Erikson based his theory on his personal notes and experiences dealing with clients, and his theory is DIFFICULT TO VALIDATE empirically. Also his work is grounded in the time in which he lived and practice, and it may not accurately explain development changes influenced by our current society and level of technology, which is quite different.
4. Fourth, the dichotomy of Erikson's eight life-span stages may have more factors influencing it than Erikson had accounted for because CONCURRENT crises may occur in each stage and it doesn't necessarily follow a specific sequence. For example, who's to say that a young adult cannot have integrity in her/his leadership roles, described by Erikson to be a crisis occurring in old age. Further, what about teenagers who attend and volunteer at Youth United Nations events believing that they are making contributions to society and future generations; aren't they displaying generativity contradicting Erikson describing it to occur only in adulthood? |
| What are some contributions Erikson's work had for the field of developmental studies? | 1. Erikson's work is intuitively sensible enough, and he was the first to recognise the ROLE that identity formation plays in becoming a productive, happy, adult.
2. In addition, it helped focus on our NEED for relatedness, the innate need to feel loved, connected to, and respected by other people (Deci & Ryan, 2008; Moller, Deci, & Elliot, 2010; Pavey, Greitemeyer, & Sparks, 2010).
3. It also helps OFFER EXPLANATIONS for problems encountered in classrooms. For example, a student, Sean, is feeling that the other students are "out to get him" so he acts out. This may suggest that Sean hasn't positively resolved the trust-distrust crisis. This has left him less able to develop a sense of autonomy, initiative, or industry, which helps us understand why it's affecting his academic work.
We've all met people we admire because of their positive outlook, openness, and commitment to making the world better (Prof. Gana). We've also encountered those who believe that others are trying to take advantage of them or are somehow inherently evil (Ezra). We see good minds sliding into lethargy because of a lack of initiative or even substance abuse (Past Self). We become frustrated by people's apathy and lack of zest for living (Xaith). Erikson's theory helps us understand these issues. |
