| Enlightenment | A philosophical movement which started in Europe in the 1700's and spread to the colonies. It emphasized reason and the scientific method. Writers of the Enlightenment tended to focus on government, ethics, and science, rather than on imagination, emotions, or religion. Many members of the Enlightenment rejected traditional religious beliefs in favor of Deism, which holds that the world is run by natural laws without the direct intervention of God. |
| Social Contract | An Enlightenment concept; an agreement between the people and their government signifying their consent to be governed; popular in the 16th-18th centuries among theorists such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, as a means of explaining the origin of government and the obligations of subjects. |
| Natural Rights | rights granted to all people by nature or God that cannot be denied or restricted by any government or individual; are often said to be granted to people by "natural law." Often discussed by Enlightenment thinker John Locke |
| Deism | A popular Enlightenment-era belief is that there is a God, but that God isn't involved in people's lives or in revealing truths to prophets. |
| Liberalism | A political ideology that emphasizes the civil rights of citizens, representative government, and the protection of private property. This ideology, derived from the Enlightenment, was especially popular among the property-owning middle classes. |
| Empiricism | the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation |
| Nationalism | sense of commonality based on language, religion, social customs, and territory; sometimes harnessed by governments to foster a sense of unity |
| Feminism | the belief that women should possess the same political and economic rights as men; became popular during the Enlightenment |
| Suffrage | the right to vote in political elections |
| End of Serfdom | Most important reform of Russian Czar Alexander II; 1861-1865 |
| Self-Strengthening Movement | A late nineteenth century movement in which the Chinese under the Qing Dynasty attempted to modernize their army and encourage Western investment in factories and railways |
| Capitalism | an economic and political system in which a country's trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit, rather than by the state. |
| labor union | An organization of workers that tries to improve working conditions, wages, and benefits for its members; popularized after worker exploitation common after the Industrial Revolution |
| Toussaint L'Ouverture | Was an important leader of the Haitian Revolution and the first leader of a free Haiti; in a long struggle again the institution of slavery, he led the blacks to victory over the whites and free coloreds and secured native control over the colony in 1797, calling himself a dictator. |
| Peninsulares | Spanish-born, came to Latin America; ruled, highest social class in Latin America since they were the least likely to have "tainted bloodlines" |
| Muhammad Ali | Leader of Egyptian modernization in the early nineteenth century. He ruled Egypt as an Ottoman governor, but had imperial ambitions. His descendants ruled Egypt until overthrown in 1952. |
| Karl Marx | 1818-1883. 19th century philosopher, political economist, sociologist, humanist, political theorist, and revolutionary. Often recognized as the father of communism. Analysis of history led to his belief that communism would replace capitalism as it replaced feudalism. Believed in a classless society. |
| Otto von Bismarck | Chancellor of Prussia from 1862 until 1871, when he became chancellor of Germany. A conservative nationalist, he led Prussia to victory against Austria (1866) and France (1870) in order to create a sense of national unity; assisted German unification in 1871 |
| Adam Smith | Scottish economist who wrote the Wealth of Nations in 1776, a precursor to modern capitalism. |
| Proletariat | Marx's term for the exploited class, the mass of workers who do not own the means of production |
| Young Turks | A coalition starting in the late 1870s of various groups favoring modernist liberal reform of the Ottoman Empire. It was against monarchy of Ottoman Sultan and instead favored a constitution. In 1908 they succeed in establishing a new constitutional era. |
| Creoles | Descendents of Spanish-born but born in Latin America; resented inferior social, political, economic status. |
| Mary Wollstonecraft | English writer and early feminist who denied male supremacy and advocated equal education for women; wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Women, a famous feminist document in 1792 |
| Bourgeoisie | the middle class, including merchants, industrialists, and professional people |
| Simon Bolivar | The most important military leader in the struggle for independence in South America. Born in Venezuela, he led military forces there and in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. |
| Declaration of Independence | 1776 statement, issued by the Second Continental Congress, explaining why the colonies wanted independence from Britain. |
| Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen | Adopted August 26, 1789, statement of fundamental political rights adopted by the French National Assembly at the beginning of the French Revolution. |
| Jamaica Letter | A was a document written in Jamaica by South American revolutionary leader Simon Bolivar where he famously expanded his views on thee independence movement in Venezuela and the way the government under the way they tried to operate. |
| Reign of Terror | (1793-1794) during the French Revolution when thousands were executed for "disloyalty;" led by Robespierre who tried rebels and had them executed often by guillotine |
| Realpolitik | practical politics, ends justified the means, power more important than principles; utilized by Otto von Bismarck to unify Germany |
| Industrial Revolution | A period of rapid growth in the use of machines in manufacturing and production that began in England c. 1750 |
| cottage industry | Manufacturing based in homes rather than in a factory, commonly found before the Industrial Revolution; work was highly skilled and valued |
| factory system | A method of production that brought many workers and machines together into one building; replaced localized cottage industry. Workers were paid by the hour instead of for what they produce; decreased the need for skilled labor and led to exploitation of workers |
| seed drill | created by Jethro Tull, it allowed farmers to sow seeds in well-spaced rows at specific depths; this boosted crop yields and population growth |
| Spinning Jenny | This machine played an important role in the mechanization of textile production; conceived c. 1764 by James Hargreaves, an English weaver. |
| crop rotation | The practice of rotating use of different fields from crop to crop each year, to avoid exhausting the soil; utilized during the c. 1750 time period and led to increased crop yields and growing population |
| Enclosure Movement | consolidation and privatization of small landholdings/common lands into a smaller number of large farms in England c. 1700; contributed to the increase in population and the rise of industrialization as farmers were displaced and needed to find work in the cities |
| steam engine | A machine that turns the energy released by burning fuel into motion. Thomas Newcomen built the first crude but workable one in 1712. James Watt vastly improved his device in the 1760s and 1770s. It was then applied to machinery. |
| telegraph | A device for rapid, long-distance transmission of information over an electric wire. It was introduced in England and North America in the 1830s and 1840s. |
| middle class | A social class made up of skilled workers, professionals, business people, and wealthy farmers; rose to wealth and prominence during the Industrial Revolution |
| Second Industrial Revolution | (1871-1914) Involved development of chemical, electrical, oil, and steel industries. Mass production of consumer goods also developed at this time through the mechanization of the manufacture of food and clothing. It saw the popularization of cinema and radio. Provided widespread employment and increased production. |
| Tanzimat Reforms | Series of reforms in the Ottoman Empire between 1839 and 1876; established Western-style universities, state postal system, railways, extensive legal reforms; resulted in creation of new constitution in 1876 |
| Communism | a political theory derived from Karl Marx, advocating class war and leading to a society in which all property is publicly owned and each person works and is paid according to their abilities and needs. |
| Meiji Restoration | In 1868, a Japanese state-sponsored industrialization and Westernization effort that also involved the elimination of the Shogunate and power being handed over to the Japanese Emperor, who had previously existed as mere spiritual/symbolic figure. |
| Laissez-faire economics | hands off approach to economic development; the government should limit its interference in the economy |
| Urbanization | An increase in the percentage and in the number of people living in cities as opposed to the countryside. |
| Wealth of Nations | British philosopher and writer Adam Smith's 1776 book that described his theory on free trade, otherwise known as laissez-faire economics. |
| Transnational business | A business that operates in several different countries but in one specific country (headquarters), two companies include the United Fruits company and HSBC |
| Industrial Working Class | lower class created during the 18th century with the onset of the Industrial Revolution; often experienced poor living and working conditions |
| Socialism | a political and economic theory of social organization which advocates that the means of production, distribution, and exchange should be owned or regulated by the community as a whole. |
