| Britain gained Hong Kong- centre of Opium trade | Opium wars- Nanking and Bogue treaties |
| Industrialised Opium from East to West | 1800 East India Company |
| Britain won first- between British Empire, China and East India Company | 1839-1842 and 1856-1860 wars |
| British Empire dominates global trade in Asia- richest nations | indian opium trade |
| East India Company | Who dictated opium trade with China |
| Pharmaceutical industry- global corporations | What is the Big Pharma |
| Most wicked things for the greater good | Capitalism definition |
| Reliant on skills of individual & local apothecaries
importation of varying drugs from east- changed capitalism market
18th century- rise of chemists
1747 Thomas Corbyn- globalisation of drug trade | Porter & Porter 1989- historical connections |
| Misrepresenting research
Off-label promotion
Kickbacks-bribery
Monopolising practices- price fixing | What are the 4 areas of proven criminality |
| Began 1970's- reduce illegal drugs- implications every country
lasted 50 years
2009- UN launched 10 year global strategy | What was the war on drugs |
| FAILURE- no reduction in manufacturing, increase in use of drugs and cultivation | Was the war on drugs successful |
| Nixon responding to growing heroin addiction in US
Implemented policies- Harrison Narcotics Tax Act 1914
UN- single convention of Narcotic Drugs 1961- target production
League of Nations- Convention for limiting manufacture | Genesis of war |
| War began before 1961
Federal Bureau of Narcotics 1930- enforce Harrison act- replaced with DEA 1973
controls public opinion- moral panics | Key facts of PEMBLETON 2015 |
| 1. International- sanctions
2. Domestic- policing | Nixons- 2 war fronts |
| Covert operations
Asset seizure
Interdiction- interventions
Incentivised agriculture | Modes of engagement (4) |
| Enemies- left and black people
Lied about drugs to disrupt communities | Truth of Nixon |
| Increased drug use
Every country involved
Deployment of technologies- targeted bribery | Consequences of war on drugs |
| 1. Counter Narcotic funding from US/UK- harsher drug policies
2. Aiding with prosecutions | What were the two influences of the war on drugs |
| Increased death penalty
Militarised responses to drug trafficking | War on drugs- legacy |
| 1. Open access- free trade
2. Closed access- known people | What are the 2 forms of illicit drug markets |
| Major trafficking routes- cocaine
Growing areas- opium | What is the production to supply |
| Disrupt production, destroy crops, interrupt trafficking, removing chemicals needed | What is the aim of the supply reduction |
| Countries politics, poverty & corruption- prevent cooperation
More complex- open borders | What are the problems of supply reduction |
| Business- pyramidal/focused
Cellular- loose but organised/ flexible
Decentralised mutual interest- competitors/ transactional support | Marketplace structure |
| Upper- complex/flexible = organised crime
Middle- cottage industry = importation & retail supply
Lower- street level = different models | Market and supply structure |
| Importers, wholesalers, middle market, retail dealers | Pearson and Hobbs 2001 |
| Drugs- purchase is straightforward and secure | What is Silk road |
| UN office on drugs and crime 2014 world drug report first mentioned Dark Net drugs market | Crypto-markets |
| Reduce the risk of detection- postal delivery, crypto- currencies and advertising wares on dark web | What do vendors do |
| Prevent the non-medical use of certain drugs
Offences include- unlawful supply, intent to supply, import or export of unlawful production | What is the Misuse Drugs Act 1971 |
| Misuse of Drugs Act prohibits unlawful possession | What is the main difference between Medicines Act and the Misuse of Drugs Act |
| Class A- most dangerous e.g. crack
Class B- codeine
Class C- anabolic steroids | What are the three classes of drugs by the Misuse of Drugs Act |
| Some drugs are covered by other legislation, not covered or treated in an exceptional way | Why is the laws of drugs complicated |
| If a new psychoactive substance is causing concern- 12 months under control
After 12 months- parliamentary review- either expire or under permanent control of the Misuse drugs act 1971 | What is the Temporary class drug orders |
| 14 years imprisonment and unlimited fine on indictment | Maximum penalties under the temporary class drugs |
| Cannot sell alcohol to anyone under 18
16 year old can consume wine or beer in a pub if having a meal with an adult
Laws restricting drinking of alcohol on the streets at any age | Laws about alcohol |
| Sold in joke shops, pubs
Medicines Control Agency- poppers seem as medicine
They are not controlled under Psychoactive Substances Act 2016 | Laws on poppers |
| Not illegal to posses use or buy
Offence to sell them under 18 if known to be used intoxicating purposes
Illegal to sell lighter fuel to under 18s | Laws on solvents |
| Controlled as a Class C
Possession offence is waived- UK police have successfully prosecuted some people for possession
Always a offence to sell or supply steroids to another person | Laws on anabolic steroids |
| Controlled as Class C
Possession offence is waived
Offence to sell or supply | Laws on minor tranquillisers |
| June 2014- Ketamine changed from Class C to B due to concerns of damage to the bladder | One event in history of changes in drug classification |
| Controlled- not authorised for medical use
Only supplied for exceptional circumstances
E.g. LSD | Schedule 1 |
| Available for medical use and prescribed by doctors
Illegal for possession without having a prescription
Strict record and storage in pharmacies
E.g. Heroin | Schedule 2 & 3 |
| 2 parts:
1. Minor tranquillisers- illegal for possession without a prescription
2. Anabolic steroids- legally possessed in medicinal form without prescription but illegal to supply | Schedule 4 |
| Pose minimal risk of abuse- allowed to be sold over the counter and possessed by anyone with impunity
Once brought- cannot be legally supplied to another person | Schedule 5 |
| Manufacture and supply of medicine- enforcement rarely affects public
Prescription only medicines are the most restricted
Pharmacy medicines can be sold without prescription only by pharmacist
General sales list- sold by any shop (restrictions) | What is the Medicines Act 1968 |
| Penalises unauthorised import or export of controlled drugs
Maximum penalties are the same for other trafficking offences | Customs and excise management act 1979 |
| Offence- drive through drink or drugs
2015- sets blood concentration limits | Road traffic act 1972 |
| Offence to sell preparation or administration of controlled drugs e.g. cocaine snorting kits
Seizure of assests and income of someone who is found guilty | Drug trafficking 1994 |
| Enforceable drug treatment and testing orders for people convicted of crimes to maintain drug use
Prohibitions on supply | Crime and disorder act 1998 |
| Libertarian- right to decide
Empiricist - prohibition policy doesn't work
Pragmatist- 10% imports are detected
Reductionist- prohibition increases criminality
Social justice- legislation argues lower death rates
Economic - money from CJS treatment | What are the various arguments for legislation |
| Rate of consumption | Meaning of prevalence |
| Attitudes towards the consumption of substances and users | Meaning on normalisation |
| Socially constructed - labelled as problematic
childhood- innocent, naivety and vulnerable
youth- problematic, deviant and risky
maturity gap- gap between physical maturation and social maturity status= few activities leads to illegitimate activities | What is the construction of youth |
| Highlights illicit drugs consumption has grown in importance within cultures
Cultural and sub-cultural practice is a condition to understand drug consumption
- attitudes towards drugs and users change
- extant social behaviours become stigmatized
- derived from consumption trends | Normalisation thesis |
| 1. namely drug available
2. drug trying
3. drug use
4. drug wise
5. future intentions
6. cultural accommodation | What are the 6 factors which distinguishes a drug from being problematic |
| deviant and non-agentive | What is the youth paradox |
| (emulation theory & peer pressure) | Substance consuming behaviours have external locus of control |
| deviance nor hedonism | What are NOT motives for substance consumption in youth practices |
| 1. function
2. context
3. utility | 3 things to understand social practice |
| - security
- identity
- expression
- in group cohesion | Drug use understood as offering |
| Mechanism of cultural performance | What is normalisation |
| Symbolic exchange value | What is cultural capital |
| Drug imagery as having cultural capital
- major income
- 'edge' life
- utilizes drug symbolism
- legitimation of desirability of drugs | Normalisation by UN and governments has resulted in... |
| Use and exchange of recreational drugs in informal settings | What are micro-sites |
| Social/ interpersonal networks- 'gift-giving', safety, deviance rejection | Where does supply/consumption occur |
| Non-problematic/ abusive substance consumption only occurs contextually
Problem- is it deviant or cover everything | What is recreational drugs |
| Behaviours that diverge from accepted standards- criticism in cultural or social context | Are recreational drugs deviant |
| Eating and drinking- cements social roles, norms
Trade- legal
Substances- alcohol | Sociality and commensality |
| Conditions (cancer) cause pain- people self medicate
Trade- illicit (sharing medication)
Substances- narcotic analgesic | Pain management |
| Management of physical body (dysmorphic)
Trade- illicit/ over the counter
Substances- laxatives, steroids, testosterone blockers | Somatic control |
| 3 forms- social, sex, sport relation to competition, sexual, anxiety
Trade- informal/ illicit/ over the counter
Substances- viagra, steroids, cocaine | Performance enhancement |
| Rationalised & ritualised consumption in pursuit of non-hedonistic states- relate to religious performance and public health
Trade- legal/ illicit
Substances- LSD, mushrooms | Disciplined pleasures |
| Denial of earthly pleasures- facilitating vituous behaviours
Trade- legal
Substances- caffeine, sugar | Ascetic pleasures |
| Physical and psychological pleasures- hedonistic (dance cultures)
Trade- illicit/ interpersonal/ gift-giving in social networks
Substances- MDMA, ket, cocaine | Ecstatic pleasures |
| Maximising physical experiences of sex and orgasm- increasing 'chemsex'
Trade- illicit/ interpersonal
Substances- GHB, methamphetamine | Carnal pleasures |
| - Evidence ignored
- Scientific consensus rejected
- Muddled, unfocused and ill-conceived | Why is the Psychoactive substance act problematic |
| Spice/ Mamba and other NPS substances were becoming a major problem in prisons | What led to the Psychoactive substance act |
| - Misuse of these comparable to traditional substances
- Mass commercialisation of such substances to diversified markets | Substances were not new in the Psychoactive substance act- but what was new |
| - Designer drugs
- Short lived and highly dangerous
- Boom in heroin trade
(1990s rave scene) | History of the 1980s drugs |
| - Demand increase
- Cost effective- cheaper to produce
- Established markets for 4 types- stimulants, sedatives, hallucinogens, cannabinoids | History of 2000s drugs |
| - Capable of producing a psychoactive effect in a person- stimulating or depressing
- Not an exempted substance
- Enters the body in any way | How does section 2 in the Psychoactive substances act define what one is |
| - Add any description of substance
- Remove description
Must be consulted by Advisory Council and Secretary of State | Section 3 in the Psychoactive substances act outlines exempted substances which was amended to... |
| - Intentionally produces the substance
- Intends to consume for the effects or knows its reckless | Under the Psychoactive substances act, a person commits an offence if... |
| - Person intentionally supplies to another person
- Person knows it is reckless
- Offers to supply to another person | Under section 5 of the Psychoactive substance act- supplying or offering to supply means a person commits an offence if... |
| - Fine- only for sections 1-8
- Summary conviction to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 12 months | What is the penalty if a person commits an offence under section 1-9 in the Psychoactive substances act- includes possession, importing or exporting the substance |
| - Carry if the circumstances for carrying is an exempted activity | Under the psychoactive substances act what are the exceptions to offences |
| -Stop and search
- Enter premises
- Production of documents
- Seizure | Between 12-47 sections in the Psychoactive substances act, name some things which might be found |
| - Substance has a significant effect on mental processes, or depresses the central nervous system
- So broad to include any substance that alters mental state- include heroin to scented candles
- Problems for prosecutions | What is the simplistic focus on psychoactivity |
| 2 substances may have homologous structures- 1 has a psychoactive function and the other may not | What is a pharmacological issue for psychoactive substances |
| 1. Theresa May- not want long debates about which substances are harmful
2. Some substances with psychoactive effects doesn't not make it harmful | Why does the Psychoactive substance act not follow the convention of harm |
| - Wide range of unspecified substances
- No list of exempted substances
- Does not criminalise possession of a psychoactive substance
Created a displacement effect | What are legal issues in the psychoactive substance act 2016 |
| People with problematic substance misusing conditions often 'fall off the wagon' | What is chronic relapsing condition |
| Self-referral- often no formal penalties
Aim= controlling use and to help reduce offending
Can be done in residential, community or custodial setting | Treatment for drugs |
| Coercive treatment- referral by CJS
Residential, community, custodial
Aim= reducing drug use
Court orders and other processes where 'offenders' might receive treatment
Penalty laden- sanctions and censure for non-completion | Intervention for drugs |
| Understanding their lives have become unmanageable
Deciding to turn their lives around
Admit wrongdoings- try to make amends
Prayer and meditation | What is the 12 step paradigm |
| Don't know how effective it is
Chronic relapsing condition- if someone relapses after 4 years does it mean its successful
Clinical claims success 5-10%
Higher power- poses problems for self-determination
Substance misuse relate to childhood abuse- poses therapeutic problems | What are the problems with the 12 step paradigm |
| -CBT- changed negative thoughts and behaviours
-Functional analysis
-Recognise situations involving other people- could lead to relapse
-Cope more effectively with their reactions
-Skills training
-Avoid negative feelings- address situations more positive | What are systems of change |
| 1. Reluctant- do not want to consider change- not fully conscious of thier behaviour, careful listening can be helpful
2. Rebellious- knowledge about the problem, don't like to be told what to do, could be result of insecurity, appear hostile
3. Resigned- overwhelmed by the problem, feel out of control- see the habit as controlling them
4. Rationalizing- appears to have all the answers, not consider change as feel like behaviour is result of others, identify rationalizing client in a session
Problems= offender is still offending, using drugs, misusing alcohol | Change cycle
Pre-contemplation (start)- what are the resistance 4 R's |
| Residential- intensive 8-12 week programme, undertake varying treatment programme
Community- undertake and attend at probation services- CBT based
Custodial- prison, successful completion a determinate of sentence | What are interventions within the residential, community and custodial settings |
| Aims= reduce alcohol related violent offending
Designed for hazardous drinkers in custody for alcohol related violence
Medium intensity cognitive behavioural group-challenges way individuals think | What is alcohol related violence programme (ARV) |
| -Psychosocial - in group or one to one sessions
-Aims= reduce offending behaviour & problematic substance misuse with goal of recovery
-Achieved= exploration of previous/current substance use and skill set to prevent relapse into former patterns | Building skills for recovery (BSR) |
| -Programmes aimed at reducing violence and anger in impulsive drinkers
-Group work or one to one in secure or community settings
-Aim= reducing re-offending mainly in young men with repeated history of violence whilst intoxicated | Covaid programmes (control of violence and anger in impulsive drinkers) |
| Prison based
Cognitive behavioural treatment programme
Assist prisoners to address factors relating to substance misuse that links to their offending behaviour | Focus substance misuse programme |
| Community based- providing motivation for behaviour change through awareness
Assist relapse prevention | Low intensity alcohol programme (LIAP) |
| Based on 'total immersion' model
Take responsibility for self and mutual help in making lifestyle modifications- 3 phase treatment model designed to mirror wider community living | Prison partnership therapeutic community programme (PPTCP) |
| -Prison based
-High intensity intervention
-Aims= highlight loss of control over substance use, offending and other dysfunctional areas- get a commitment to change
-Pro-social models | Prison partnership 12 step programme (PPTSP) |
| -Drug and alcohol interventions
-Aim= highlight loss of control over substance use, offending- commitment to change
-Follows 12 step NA fellowship programme | Rehabilitation of addicted prisoners trust (RAPT) |
| -Drug & alcohol cognitive behavioural intervention- assist offenders address related offending & reduce substance misuse
- Substance misusers with a medium/high risk of re-offending
-Aim= teach skills required to reduce substance misuse- help relapse prevention & shows substance misuse as an important factor
-Programme has 20 sessions | Addressing substance related offending (ASRO) |
| -Drug intervention in prison
-Though processes & socio-economic situations contribute
-Full assessment, programme material, individual key work sessions and post programme review to evaluate progress/ identify support | Prison-addressing substance related offending (P-ASRO) |
| -Challenges attitudes, behaviour aiming to reduce drink driving
-Self-monitoring- increase the knowledge of effects to promote safer driving
-Aims to raise awareness and effects on victims and offender
-Targeted offenders who committed drink-drive related offence & no more than 4 convictions
-14 group-based sessions over 14 weeks | Drink impaired drivers programme (DID) |
| -Drug and alcohol misuse- using cognitive methods to change attitudes, behaviour to prevent relapse and reduce offending
-Modular groupwork- teaches medium to high risk offenders skills to stop substance misuse
-Aims to reduce crime
-26 sessions over 12 to 24 weeks | Substance abuse programme (OSAP)- groupwork |
| Aims= teach offenders to stop substance misuse & reduce crime
-One to one environment- problem solving process
-Set goals for self-change & provide learning opportunitites for skills
-Evaluates outcomes of the intervention with integrated post-tests and other measures
-Programmed tailored to individual needs- enhance motivation
-10-20 sessions | Programme for reducing individual substance misuse (PRISM) |
| Technical analysis of a biological specimen- determine the presence or absence | What is drug testing |
| -Urine
-Hair
-Blood
-Breath
-Oral fluid | What are the 5 core methods of drug testing |
| 1. on the spot
2. laboratory testing- 2 steps=
-screen testing & tests concentration of compounds by using antibodies
-confirmation test | What are the 2 ways drug testing can occur |
| -Test on arrest- 33% positive
-Attend assessments with qualifies drug worker
-Bail conditions | What is drug testing in arrests |
| -Drug Abstinence Requirement- condition of community sentence
-Drug Abstinence Order- specified target group where alternative community sentence is not appropriate
-Drug treatment and testing order
-Drug rehabilitation requirement | Drug testing in courts |
| Powers= section 16A of prison act 1952
enables prisoners to be tested for controlled drugs as defined by misuse of drugs act 1971 | Drug treatment in prisons |
| Tests for drugs 'misused' by individual
Sample urine sent to labs
Outcome=adjudication=referral | What are MDTs |
| -Supply information on patterns of drug misuse
-Deterrence
-Identify those in need
-Contribute to drug supply reduction | What are the purposes of MDT |
| Institutional= randomised testing, targeting of non-users
Personal= using drugs that are difficult to test for, detox products, managing to avoid detection | Cheating in drug tests |
| -Introduced in 1997- deepen control mechanisms in prisons
-Targeting known drug users- high % positive test results
-Impact on KPI/Ts- prisons could not test in a way with most efficacy
-Changed drug using behaviours
-Increase in people leaving prison with drug dependency | What are the unintended consequences of MDT |
| Breathalyzer- alcohol | How are BAC tests administered |
| Drug testing in sports, workplace and CJS | What are urinalysis used for |
