1. Add emphasis 2. Construct questions 3. Construct negatives 4. Indicate tense Note: Future is not a tense, it is constructed by adding modals will/shall to the infinitive form of a verb

Transitive vs Intransitive Verbs

Verb + Object Verb (no object)

Active vs Passive Verbs

Emphasis is on the subject Emphasis is on the object (agent responsible for the action can be left out eg. An apology has been issued)

Types of Pronouns (Words that replace nouns, 7)

1. Personal (eg. I, me, we, us, you, he, she) 2. Possessive (eg. ours, mine, theirs) 3. Reflexive (eg. myself, himself, herself) 4. Demonstrative (eg. this, that, these, those) 5. Interrogative (eg. who, what, which, whose) 6. Indefinite (eg. someone, anything, no one, everything) 7. Relative (linking words that refer to nouns - do not replace them but are always placed after)

Types of Conjunctions (2)

Coordinating (join sentences of equal value eg. And, but, or) Subordinating (join the subordinate clause to the main clause eg. Because, although, unless)

Prepositions (Indicate how one thing is related to another, 3)

Positions eg. at, an, opposite Direction eg. into, past, to Time eg. before, during, after

Determiners (come before the noun, directly refer to them, 4)

Indefinite article eg. a, an Definite article eg. the Demonstrative eg. this, that, these, those Possessive eg. my, our, your, his Note: A quantifier is just a number, a determiner comes before the noun eg. fifteen students In this case, the determiner refers to quantity (one, two, three) and (some, few, many).

Clause Structure (5)

1. Subject 2. Verb 3. Object 4. Complement 5. Adverbial (optional) Note: Clauses usually contain both a verb phrase and other types of phrase.

Types of Adverbials (3)

Time Place Manner

Types of Sentences (3)

Simple Compound (simple sentences joined by coordinating conjunctions) Complex (comprised of a main clause and less important subordinate clause joined by subordinating conjunctor) eg. I thought that the journey was slow ('that the journey was slow' cannot stand on its own)

Different purposes of Sentences (4)

Declarative Interrogative Imperative (usually begin with Verbs and omit Subjects) Exclamatory

Types of Subordinate Clauses (4)

1. Introduced by 'that' 2. Introduced by 'wh-' word 3. Adverbial eg. She left before I arrived/She left because it was late 4. Relative (includes relative pronouns who, whose, which, that) eg. The hand that rocks the cradle rules the world.

Study of Word Structure

Morphology

Morpheme Definition

Smallest unit of language

Function of Morphemes

Expresses meaning or serves a grammatical function

Word structure (2)

Root word/Base form Affixes (Prefixes/Suffixes)

Types of Morphemes (2)

Free (can stand alone) Bound (eg. affixes; un-, -s, -ful, -ness, -er)

Inflectional Affixes Function

Indicate grammatical features (always suffixes)

Functions of Inflectional Affixes (5)

1. Plurality 2. Possessiveness 3. Third person singular 4. Past tense 5. Comparative/Superlative

Types of Affixes (2)

Inflectional (indicate grammatical features, always suffixes) Derivational (create new words by changing the word class) Note: Derivational prefixes often don't change the word class but they can show opposite meaning (eg. unfair)

Phrase Definition

One or more words functioning as a unit

Phrase Structure (2)

Head Word Modifiers Note: Noun phrases have a noun or pronouns as their head word. There can only be one noun in a noun phrase. A verb phrase contains a verb as the head word.

Types of Modifiers (2)

Pre-modifiers Post-modifiers

Study of Meanings

Semantics

Levels of Meaning (2)

Denotation Connotation Tip: If asked for connotations, focus on the negative/positive

Grouping of Words (3)

Lexical/Semantic fields Hyponyms (specific branches) and Hypernyms (general branches) Synonyms and Antonyms Note: A word that has more than one meaning is polysemic (ambiguous). The deliberate contrasting of words in text is antithesis.

Idiom Meaning

Expression whose meaning cannot be deciphered from the individual words. eg. face the music put a sock in it The words bear no apparent relation with the meaning of when they are grouped together.

Collocation Meaning

Groups (usually pairs) of words that are commonly found alongside each other (can have a wide or narrow range).

Types of Cohesion (2)

Grammatical Lexical

Grammatical Cohesions (4)

1. Reference (third person pronouns or demonstrative pronouns) Note: When a word is referring back it is anaphoric, references forward are cataphoric 2. Identification (determiners) 3. Ellipsis 4. Conjunctions/Connectives

Lexical Cohesions (2)

1. Repetition (synonyms can also be used) 2. Collocation (tendency of words to be grouped together)

Linguistics Notes

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Exámenes

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Linguistics Notes - Marcador

Linguistics Notes - Detalles

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