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| What does ethical implications mena? | The impact of a piece of research once it has been completed. How their research findings are represented in the media, the impact of their work on public policy, and how it may influence our perception of particular groups in society. |
| What is socially sensitive research? | Studies in which there are potential consequences or implications, either directly for the participants in the research or for the class of individuals represented by the research. |
| What does validity of research mean? | Some findings that were presented as objective in the past have turned out to be highly suspect, and in some cases, fraudulent. (actually subjective) |
| What does uses/public policy mean? | What is the research likely to be used for? And what would happen if it was used for the wrong purpose? |
| Strengths of ethical implications? | -Benefit the group being studied -The DSM 1 listed homosexuality as a 'sociopathic personality disorder' but was removed in 1973, as a result of the Kinsey report -Anonymous interviews with other 5000 men about their sexual behaviour concluded that homosexuality is a normal varient of human sexual behaviour -Illustrates the importance of researchers tackling topics that are senistive. |
| Strength of ethical implication and socially sensitive research? | -Policy makers rely on socially sensitive research -Government needs research when developing social policy related to child care, education, mental health provisions, crime -Better to base policies on scientific researhc rather than politically-motivated views. Eg: the ONS are responisble for collecting, analysing and disseminating objective statistics about the UK economoy, society and population -Means psychologists have a important role to play in providing high quality research on socially sensitive topics. |
| Weakness of socially sensitive research? | -Researchers avoiding it but it is not responisble -Researchers could avoid SSR and that is what they seem to be doing -The APA claimed that 95% of non-sensitive proposals are approved by only 50% of SSR. However, Sieber and Stanley advised that ignoring such topics is not responisble. Researchers could use a more reflexive appraoch -Suggests that SSR can be ethical if researchers' bais form part of the finding. |
| A weakness of SRR? | -Poor research deisgn may have a long term impact - Eg: Burt's research on IQ showed it is genetic, fixed, and apparent by age 11. This led to the 11+ exam which meant not all children had the same eductional opportunities -Later research shown to be based on invented evidence but the system didn't change and continues in parts of the UK today -Any SSR needs to be planned to the greatest care to ensure the findings are valid bc of the enduring effects on particular groups of people |
| What is universality ? | When a theory is described as universal, it means that it can apply to all people, irrespective of gender and culture. |
| What does gender bias mean? | Favouritism shown to one gender over another |
| What does androcentrism mean? | The practice of putting a male’s point of view at the centre of one’s world view, culture, and history |
| What is estrocentrism? | The practice of putting a female’s point of view at the centre of one’s world view, culture, and history |
| What is alpha bias? | When a study/theory over exaggerates the difference between the genders (this may enhance or undervalue members of either sex) |
| What is beta bias? | Ignoring or minisming the differences between genders |
| Example of alpha bias? | -Freud’s theories reflect his culture at the time (men are more powerful and educated). -Psychoanalysis therefore views women as lesser as a form of failed masculinity (eg. penis envy).Only describes Oedipus complex |
| Example of beta bias? | Biopsychologists looking at fight-or-flight typically used male animals to research on. Recent research shows females use a tend-and-befriend response instead in times of stress, (Taylor 2000). |
| Example of androcentrism? | Psychology is dominated by male researchers, This leads to female behaviour being misunderstood or pathologized. PMS has been objected by females as it medicalises female emotions by explaining it in hormone terms. But male anger is often seen as a rational response to pressure. |
| What is the gender bias in anorexia? | One symptom of anorexia listed in the DSM-5 is amenorrhea which is the loss of a menstrual cycle for 3 months. This criteria does not have an equivalent in males, giving clinicians less chance to consider anorexia in men. |
| What is the gender bias in autism? | Autism often is under-diagnosed in females as most of the key criteria for diagnosis centre around limited social skills, relationships and communication. Autistic females are often better in social contexts than their male counterparts, so they may be misdiagnosed with things like depression, anxiety or OCD instead. |
| A strength of gender bias? | -Encouraged modern researchers to use reflexibility - This is when researchers reflect on their own values and assumptions of gender and how they might have impacted their work/research -Research can also be used to uplift women positively eg: Cornwell notes that women are better at learning as they are more attentive and organised -Type of research helps to reduce or challenge stereotypes, which is important in reducing gender bias |
| A stength of gender bias ? | -Feminist psychology sets out a series of requirements needed to ensure equality in psychological research -Done by studying women in real-life contexts, genuinely participate in research (not just lab rates) with an equal number of male and female ppts -Needs to be a diverse group of women and differences within women, not just in comparison to men -Methods are much more preferable and less gender-biased than the rigid lab environment |
| A weakness of gender bias? | -Psychological research is instituional sexism -Senior researchers (who choose what to investigate) are more likely to be men and so female issues are less likely to be addressed. Male researchers also more likely to get published -Potential for women to be treated as 'lab rats' in research - with male researchers in a powerful position drawing conclusions on their behaviour -Create further bias and inequality in psycholgocial theory and research |
| A weakness of gender bias? | -Gender differences can be politcially-motivated arguments, presented as a scientific fact -Analusis by Walkerdine (1990) showed how 'scientific' research published in the 1930s described how by engaging in 'intellectual activities' eg. going to university, women's ovaries would shrviel and harm her chances of having children -Research like this can provide a scientific justification to deny women opportunitites in work and wider society -Show how gender bias is not a methodlogical problem in psychology, but can have significant negative implications in real life |
| What is cultural bias? | The tendency to judge all people in terms of favour own cultural expectations |
| What is ethnocentrism? | Judging other cultures by the standards/values of your own. Extreme of this could be believing your own culture is superior (leads to prejudice/discrimination) |
| What is cultural relativism? | The idea that norms/value can only be understood within a specific cultural and social contexts. Some things may only exist in specific cultures. |
| What is emic construct? | A theory that can be applied to a specific cultural group |
| What is etic construct? | A theory that is assumed to apply to all cultures |
| What is imposed etic ? | Occurs when an emic construct is assumed to be an etic construct. |
| What is alpha bias? | When a study/theory over exaggerates the difference between the cultures (this may enhance or undervalue members of the cultures) |
| What is beta bias? | Ignoring or minisming the differences between cultures |
| What is universality? | When a theory is described as universal, it means that it can apply to all people, irrespective of gender and culture. |
| A strength of cultural boas? | -Conducting cross-cultural research is important in order to challenge implicit assumptions - Understadning that certain concepts or knoweldge we taken for granted may not be sharped by others canhelp to reduce imposed etic and challenges the typical Western way of thinking - Encourages researchers to investgate cultural differences in behaviour and calenge perious claims of 'scientific racism' -Means that future conclusions drawn by psychologist are likely to be more internally and externally valid with more recongnition of important role that cultural plays |
| A weakness of cultural bias? | -Operationalising variables can pose a problem when conducting cross-cultural research -Certain variabes might not be experienced by all ppts the same: eg. China, invasion of personal space in noramlise - in the UK it can come across as threatening -Affect clinical diagnoses too eg: schizophremia being over-diagnosed in African cuturals (talking to your ancesotrs, seen as a positve symptom of SZ) -Factors can make it difficult to study certain phemonomon or theproes across different cultures |
| A weakness of cultural bias? | -Cultural difference becoming increasingly more blurred in moderntimes -Pscyholgoists have often referenced the individualistic-collectivst culture divide, with individualistic cultures favouring independence and collectivist cultures more rooted in interdependence -However 14/15 studies into cultural differences between Japan and USA in a meta-analysis by Takano and Osaka found no evidence of the individualistic-collectivist data -Now with international travel and emigration and multi-culturalism is becoming increasingly more commn, classical view too simplistic |
| Weakness of cultural bias? | -Whilst it is important to consider cultural bias in research, shouldn't be assumed that there is no such thing as a universal behaviour -Research suggest that basic facial expressions for emotions are the same all over the human and animal world -Even though Ainsworth's strange situation and attachment types can be crituiqed for imposed etic, research has shown that some features of attachemtn (imitation and interactional syncrhony) are universal -Understand human behaiovur more fully, we have to appreciate behaviour unique to specific cultures (cultrually relative) and universal behaviour together. |
| What does nature mean? | The idea that human characteristics are innate, as the result of heredity - the genetic transmission of mental and physical characteristics from one generation to another |
| What is used to determine if something is influenced by genetics? | The heritability coefficient scale of 0-1 (is being completely genetic) |
| What does the nature explanation include/exclude? | Does not include things are present at birth, anything determined by your genes References to evolutionary factors that we have inherited eg: the fight-or-flight response. |
| What does nuture mean? | States that environmental influences determine behaviour Argue that the mind is a blank state at birth |
| What can the 'experiences' range from? | Pre-natal influences in the womb through to cultural and historical influences at a societal level Nurture can affect an individual before and after birth (pre and post-natal) |
| What is the interactionist approach? | Doesn’t pin point if it s nature or nurture, collectively agreed that they are intertwined and therefore not practical attempt to separate the two. |
| What is the diathesis-stress model? | - The Diathesis is a predisposition or vulnerability - The stress is environmental stressors, -These will lead to a development of the disorder, a stress activates the predisposition within a person. |
| What is epigenetics? | Change in genetics activity, without changing genetic code It is a process that happens throughout life and is caused by interaction with the environment |
| Example of epigenetics? | Lifestyle choices like smoking and pollution which can leave epigenetic ‘marks’ on our DNA. Smoking could have long lasting impacts, as it tells the body which genes to activate Tell our body what genes to ingnore and use - influence genetic code of our children |
| Why is epigenetics considered the third element of nature-nuture debate? | Introduces life experiences of previous generations. |
| A strength of nature v nuture? | -Interactionist approach can be seen as amore sensible in it's approach -Twin studies that hope to separate the 2 elements often ignore the confounding variable of a shared neviornment growing up - menaing concordance rates are likley ue to nature and nuture -Diathesis-stress model seen to explore how these interact, seeing as it is impractical to separate the 2 in twin studies, therefore providng a more realisitc explanation as it show how they can influence each other -Appropriate epxlantion, therefore a holistic approach |
| A strength of nature v nuture? | -Research support for the influence of nature on humans -Eg: discovery of the parahippocampal gyrus influences OCD as it is used to process negative emtions and seen to function abnoramlly with patients with OCD -COMT gene has been associated with OCD with higher levels of dopamine found within OCD patients showing showing a abnormality within neurotransmitters -Leads to development of treates like the use of SSRI's and other antidrepressants that has been effective in reducing OCD symptons within pateints to allow more serotonin to diffuse across the snypase without being reabsorbed. |
| A strength of nature v nuture? | -Research support fo the influence of nurutre on human behaviour -Seen through Little Albert sutdy where psychologists used classical conditioning in order for Albert to associate a loud band with a rat, forming a phobia -Shows how humans are blank slates as suggests and increases the internal validity of the approach as it shows how some behaviours can be conditoned instead of innate fears. -Therefore, this has lead to effective treatments like systematic desensitisation and flooding which use the terms of classical and operant conditioning to help with phobias. |
| A weakness of nature v nuture? | -Extreem to both sides of the debate, which has negative implications -Nativists usggest that genes determine behaviour which leads to controvsery, for example eugenics policies in 1920's US when peopel were steralised if they were deemed a drain on society: low IQ and mentally ill -Empricits suggest behaviour is influenced by the enviornemtn - in the exreme, principles can be used to manipualte 'undesirable' behaviour, eg: converison theroapy in 1960's UK when LGBT people were given elecctric shocks to shop the 'unnatural behaviour' -Both sides of the debate can be seen as hard deterministic views which can be used to control society. |
| What does free will mean? | Being self-determining and free to choose our thoughts and actions. Ultimately being the ‘master of your own destiny’ |
| What does the behavoursit approach say about free will? | The idea of free will is an illusion. Just because you can decide between actions doesn’t necessarily mean that you have free will. |
| What does determinism mean? | The view that our behaviour is governed by internal or external forces |
| What is biological determinism? | Behaviour is governed by our genes |
| What is psychic determinism? | Behaviour is caused by innate drives and early experiences. |
| What is hard determinism? | All human behaviours has a cause - not such thing as free will |
| What is soft determinism? | All human behaviour has a cause, but there’s room for choice: people have mental control over how they behave |
| What is environmental determinism? | Behaviour is caused by previous experiences: classical/operant conditioning |
| What is Zimbardo's experiment a example of? | Environmentally determinism: the idea that the prison environment and the uniform of the guards are the ones that cause this behaviour |
| What is Schaffer's experience an exmaple of? | Biological determinism: the idea that the stages of attachment are innate within every single child |
| A strength of free will ? | -Free can have a positive impact on ppl in society -Roberts et al looked at adolescents that had a strong belief in fatalism (fate and destiny control lives). -Found they were at a greater risk of developing depression compared to people who don't believe in fatalism as they can be seen to exhibit an internal locs of control rather than a extermanl locus of control where they are likley to be more optimistic. -Seen as a support of free will shows how an individual's thoughts and the control that they ahve over thier thoughts can impact thier lives and their behavioural outcoemes, not determined by genetics. |
| A strength of determinism? | -Determinism can be seen to be consistent with the aims of science -Places psychology on an equal footing with other more established sciences as it shared the same aims of the natural sciencces to find causal expxlanations where one thing is determined by another -Knowledge of these relationships allows for scientiest to predict and control events -Suggests that a more determinsitit stance woudl give psychology more scientific credibility that the first needs to be become more respected |
| A weakness of free will | -Contradicting evidence challenging its exsistence -Seen from Soon et al who asked ppts to press a button on thier left or right hand has soon as they come to their decision -Found that the brain was active up to 10 seconds before ppts report being consciously aware of their making of the decision, showing how it seems to be decided before ppts realise -Contradict the idea of free will and support determinsitc stance shows how decisions are made unconsioulsy and influence our chocies before we realise it |
| A weakness of determinism? | -Contradicts the way in which our society operate -Hard deterministic stance is not consistent with the way in which our legal system operates. In court, offenders are held responsible for thier actions -The main principle of our legal system is that the defendant exercised their free will in committing the crime. -therefore, suggests that when the deterministic arguament is appiled to the real world it can be seen to be imcompatible with the law systems that uphold justice. |
| What is holism? | The idea that human behaviour only makes sense when studying a whole system rather than its constituent parts. Eg: humanistic approach |
| What is the order of levels from most holsitic to reducitonist | -Socio-cultural level -Psychological elve -Physical level -Physiological level -Neurochemical level |
| What is the socio-cultural level | Behaviour influenced by people around you |
| What is the psychological level? | The cognition behind behaviour |
| What is the physical level? | Physical movements involved in behaviour |
| What is the physiological level? | Activity within the brain and body |
| What is the neurochemical level? | Effect of neurotransmitters and hormones |
| What is reductionism? | The idea that human behaviour is best explained by breaking it down into smaller constituents parts. It explains behaviour using the lowest levels of explanation. |
| What is biological determinsim? | The idea that we are biological organisms so all behaviour at some point if biological. Explains behaviour thorough neurochemistry, evolutionary and genetic influence |
| What is environmental reductionism? | The idea that environment shapes our behaviour. Breaks complex learning up into stimulus-response links. Occurs at the physical level, not concerned with cognition occuring at the psychological level. |
| What level is biological approach on? | Neurochemical and physiological (Biological reudctionist) |
| What level is the cognitive approach on? | Psychological Machine reductionist |
| What level is the learning approach on? | Social learning theory: social-cultural level Behavourist - Physical level Environmentally reductionist |
| What level is humanism on? | Sociocultural level Holism |
| What level is psychodynamic on? | Psychological level Reductionist |
| A strength of the holistic approach? | -Certain behavouris only emerge in a group context -Eg: Zimbardo research would not have made sense on a reductionist levle as the experiment needed to see the ways in which ppts would react to being surrounded with people in similar situations -It was the ppts interactions with others and the prison environemnt that was significant -Therefore, holisim and socio-cultural level is better at explaning grp behaviour |
| A strength of the reductionist approach? | -It makes for a more scientific approach -Makes it posisble to conduct experiments and obersvations in an objective and reliable way -Operationalisation is key in psychology and reductionism allows varibles to be clearly defined -By following the laws of science, psychology as a subject can gian more credibility and make nomothetic laws of behaviour |
| Weakness of Holism approach? | -Can be seen as a less scientific approach -Holisitic explantion are often criticiesd for being unfalsifiable - like the humanistic apporahc -It also makes it difficult to create effective treatemtns when considering multiple factors -Therefore, reductionism is better for treating psychopathologies (eg: the neurochemical level to create drugs) |
| A weakness of reductionist? | -It can be seen to over-simplify complex phenomena -Explanations that focus on neurochemicals ignore the social context in which behaviour occurs -So, although treatments like drugs may help patients, they do not address the social trigger of disorders like depression/OCD -Therefore, reductionsit explanattions can only ever be part of an overall explantion, meaning that if a pateint overall issue is not helped with the drug, it is uneffective. |
| What is the idiographic approach? | Focus on the individual case to understand behaviour, unique people with subjective experiences. One individual or one group to provide in-depth understanding |
| Methods used for the idiographic method? | Qualitative research, highly specific data, case studies, unscientific |
| What is the nomothetic approach? | Attempts to study human behaviour to develop a general principles and universal laws, benchmark for comparison. Large groups with the aim of discovering norms and laws of behaviour |
| What are the methods used for the nomothetic approach? | Quantitative research, large scale data collected, structured and controlled research, classifying people into groups |
| A strength of the idiographic approach? | -Complete understanding of an individual -In-depth qualitative methods which can be used to shed light onto or generate new laws of behaviour -EG: Phineas Gage case study helped psychologist between understand localisation of function. -Although it is a more limited way of working, it can inform scientific laws and practice. |
| A weakness of the idiographic approach? | -Narrow and restrictive way of working -Without gathering further examples for case studies, no meaningful conclusions can be drawn -Case studies are often subjective and prone to researcher bias -Lack of scientific rigour makes it difficult to build effective theories of human behaviour |
| A strength of the nomothetic approach? | -More scientific approach -Processes involved are similar to natural sciences - standardisation, controlled, statistical testing etc -Objective methods/large samples allow us to establish norms and produce resources like the DSM -Makes it easier to diagnose psychopathology, understand human behaviour and gives us more scientific credibility |
| A weakness of the nomothetic approach? | -Leads to the loss of understanding for the individual -Focusing on general laws of behaviour, we can miss important details and unique differences -Knowing for example 1% overall lifetime risk of developing SZ tells us little about the subjective experience of living with it -Therefore, it can overlook the richness of human data and miss out on important individualities. |