BIOLOGY TOPIC 11 ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY (HL)
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BIOLOGY TOPIC 11 ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY (HL) - Marcador
BIOLOGY TOPIC 11 ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY (HL) - Detalles
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| What are the three systems that control movement? | Skeletal - bones that act as levers and a structure for muscles to pull Muscle - force needed to move bones Nervous - deliver signals for muscle contractio |
| What joins bones together? | Ligaments |
| What are skeletons? (3) | Rigid frameworks that provide support and protection for organs can be internal (endoskeletons or external (exoskeletons) = act as levers surface for muscle attachment (Anchorage) allow movement |
| Difference between endoskeleton and exoskeleton | Endoskeletons are made up of several bones that anchor muscles and act as levers while exoskeleton are made of connected segments |
| What are synovial joints? (3) | Capsules that surround the joining surfaces of two bones to maintains structural stability by allowing certain movements but not others |
| What are the 3 main components of a synovial joint? | Joint capsule = seals joint space for stability = restricts movements Cartilage = lines bone surface for smoother movement + absorbs shock and distributes load Synovial fluid = oxygen and nutrition to cartilage + lubrication by reducing friction |
| What are the 6 main types of synovial joints (least mobile = most mobile) | Plane joints hinge joints pivot joints condyloid joints saddle joints ball and socket joints |
| What is a hinge joint? example? (3) | Angular movement in one directions (flexion and extension) small amount of rotation eg: human elbow joint which is between the humerus and radius /ulna |
| Draw a human elbow joint with labels (8) | Humerus = anchorage (static) Radius (forearm lever for biceps) Ulna (forearm lever for triceps) Biceps = bends forearm (flexion) Triceps = straightens forearm (extension) Joint capsule = seals joint space (stability) Synovial fluid = lubrication Cartilage = smooth movement (reduces friction) and absorbs shock |
| How do muscles work for movement? (4) | Muscles contract to provide the force needed for movement connected to bonds with tendons connects a static bone (origin) to a moving bone (insertion) skeletal muscle works in antagonistic pairs (one contracts while other relaxes) |
| Examples of opposing movements with muscles (3) | Flexion vs extension abduction vs adduction protraction vs retraction |
| What are the three main types of muscular tissue in humans? | Skeletal muscle = voluntary movements smooth muscle = lining of internal organs cardiac muscle = contractions of the heart |
| Example of antagonistic muscle pair in animals? (4) | In the jointed exoskeleton of a grasshopper's hind leg = specialized for jumping hind leg is separated into 3 parts: femur (upper) tibia (middle) tarsus (lower) femur and tibia are connected with 2 antagonistic muscles = flexor and extensor tibiae muscles |
| Explain how an insects hind legs are used to jump? (3) | When flexor muscle causes the hind leg to bend and prepare for the insect to push off the ground when Extensor muscle contracts to cause the hind leg to straighten = launch When one contracts the other relaxes |
| Describe the organization of skeletal muscles (4) | FASCICLES: made of tightly muscular bundles (fascicles) surrounded by connective tissue (perimysium) MUSCLE FIBRES: Each bundle contains multiple muscle fibres formed from fused muscle cells (multinucleated) MYOFIBRILS: muscle fibres are made up of myofibrils which are responsible for contraction SARCOMERES: myofibrils divide into repeating sections called sarcomeres |
| What are the specialized features of a muscle fibre? (5) | Multinucleated = fibres form from the fusion of individual muscle cells Many mitochondria = muscle contraction needs a lot of ATP usage Sarcoplasmic reticulum = internal membrane network is specialized to store calcium ions (Ca 2+) Sarcolemma = continuous membrane which has invagination (inside out pouches) for depolarisation (T tubules) Myofibrils = causes contraction, are made of actin and myosin myofilaments (striated) |
| What are sarcomeres? (5) | Repeating contractile units which are made of myofilaments, actin and myosin myosin is thick and binds to regions on actin (thin) movement of the 2 filaments, causes the lengthening and shortening of the sarcomere Myosin has small heads which bind to regions on actin A sarcomere has a protein disc called Z line on both sides which holds the myofilaments in place |
| Describe the pattern of a sarcomere (4) | Striated pattern bec of thin and thick centre is darker bec of overlap from actin and myosin (A band) outsides are lighter bec of only actin present In the A band there is a slightly lighter H zone with only myosin |
| Draw a labelled sarcomere + pattern | Myosin is thicker than actin filaments myosin should show the protruding heads (form cross bridge with actin) A band = dArk I band = LIght |
| What are the 4 stages of muscle contraction? | 1: Sarcolemma depolarization and calcium ion release (nerves stimulate muscle fibre) 2: Actin and myosin cross-bridge formation (Exposes binding sites on A and M) 3: Sliding mechanism of actin and myosin filaments (actin filaments moves across the myosin) 4: Sarcomere shortening (muscle fibres contract = movement) |
| What does muscle contraction need, to occur? | Energy intensive so it needs high levels of ATP |
| What happens in the 1st stage of muscle contraction? (4) | Sarcolemma depolarisation: motor neuron releases a neurotransmitter (Acetylcholine) into motor end plate triggers depolarisation of the sarcolemma (spreads through muscle fibres by T tubules) causes Ca ions to be released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum = starts muscle contraction in sarcomere |
| What happens in the first stage of muscle contraction? | Depolarisation and calcium Ion release |
| What is the 2nd stage of muscle contraction? (4) | Cross Bridge formation Ca ions bind to regulatory protein troponin which displaces tropomyosin which exposes the binding sites the actin binding sites form cross bridges with the myosin heads |
| What is the 3rd stage of muscle contraction? (6) | Sliding mechanism w/ myofilaments ATP binds to myosin head = breaks cross bridge ATP hydrolysis causes the head to turn and detach from ADP Myosin head binds to the next binding site and turns back which pulls the actin forward = shortening of sarcomere (muscle contraction) == contraction needs a lot of ATP |
| What is the 4th stage of muscle contraction? (3) | Sarcomere shortening and muscle contracts Z lines are pulled closer together bec actin filaments are attached to them I band becomes narrower, A band same, H zone reduced muscle fibres as a whole contracts |
| Summarise muscle contraction (7) | Motor neuron = releases Ca ions from SP reticulum Ca binds to trop causes tropomyo to move = exposes binding sites for myosin heads actin + myosin form crossbridge that is broken by ATP ATP hydrolysis causes myosin to swivel and change position moved heads binds to actin Returns to original position (Releases ADP + P) Moves the actin to the center of the sarcomere actin sliding = shortens sarcomere = muscle contraction |
| What is the kidney's function? (3) | Removes metabolic waste for excretion by removing nitrogenous wastes that could be toxic in large concentrations And by removing excess water to maintain osmolarity within cells |
| What is excretion? | Removal of waste products of metabolic activity such as (urea and co2) happens in both plants and animals |
| What is egestion? | Undigested matter leftover frim digestion which is released as feces. Happens only in animals |
| What are the different excretory systems in animals and insects? (2) why? | Insects have malphigian tubules which are connected to the digestive system Mammals have kidneys which are separate from other systems |
| How is nitrogenous waste produced? | From the breakdown of amino acids and nucleotides |
| What and why are there different types of nitrogenous waste? (4) | Type of nitrogenous waste in animals is linked with the evolutionary history of the animal and habitat aquatic animals: ammonia (NH3) = toxic but water soluble Birds, Reptiles, insects: uric acid (C5H4N4O3) = needs more energy but is non toxic and less concentrated Mammals + amphibians: urea (CH4N2O) = non toxic and can be stored at higher concs |
| How do water levels in the body change? | Water is produced by condensation reactions (anabolism) Water is used in hydrolysis reactions (Catabolism) |
| What does conc of water affect? (2) | The osmolarity affects tissue viability |
| What is osmolarity? | The concentration of water in cells |
| What do nephrons do? | Filter blood and remove metabolic wastes |
| What is the difference between osmoconformers and osmoregulators? | Osmoconformers: match osmolarity to environment = needs less energy as it minimises water movement (jellyfish) Osmoregulators: maintains a constant internal osmolarity + independent BUT needs more energy as the conditions are more controlled (mammals) |
| Draw and label a kidney (7) | Cortex medulla renal artery and vein renal pelvis ureter nephron |
| How does blood enters and exits the kidney? | Enters the renal artery exits the renal vein |
| What is produced with kidneys? (2) | Urine is produced by the nephron and transported out by the ureter and is stored in the bladder before excretion |
| How is the composition of blood in the renal artery is different from the renal vein blood? (4) | Renal vein: less urea bec large amounts is removed with the nephron to make urine less water and solutes/ ions = the amount removed depends on the hydration levels Less glucose and o2 because it is used to generate energy and fuel metabolic reactions more co2 = produced in the kidneys as a byproduct of metabolic reactions Renal artery: more urea more water and solutes more glucose and o2 more co2 |
| Explain how insects excrete nitrogenous wastes? (8) | Insects have a circulating fluid system called hemolymph (blood system) =nitrogenous waste build up in hemolymph nitrogenous waste is absorbed by malpighian tubules = high solute conc in malphigian tubules ammonia is converted to uric acid which needs ATP product combines with the digested food products later on and uric acid and undigested food material are excreted from the anus with feces (uric acid is nontoxic) water absorbed by osmosis moves uric acid to hindgut solutes, water and salts are reabsorbed in the hindgut returns to hemolymph = recycled |
| Explain how the structure of the nephron and its associated blood vessels enable the kidney to carry out its functions. (11) | Excretion of nitrogenous waste is a function of the kidney with the use of processes like ultrafiltration, reabsorption and osmoregulation Ultrafiltration occurs in the glomerulus which filters the blood entering the renal artery so that only the smaller molecules get filtered in not the larger molecules such as protein and blood cells = bec of basement membrane the glomerulus has a high hydrostatic pressure within due to the wide afferent which the blood enters through and the narrow efferent whereby blood leaves. This forces the fluid into the capsule bec of the p gradient Next in the proximal convulating tube useful materials such as ions, glucose and water is reabsorbed which has adaptations such as microvilli to aid it in reabsorbing The water is reabsorbed in the descending limb of the loop of henle as it is permeable to water which creates a salt gradient in the medulla the urine is passed out through the collecting duct to the ureter which stores the urine in the bladder the water permeability varies depending on the ADH levels which depend on the person's hydration levels |
| Explain what ADH is and its effect on the body (8) | Antidiuretic hormone is a peptide hormone that is produced in the hypothalamus and it regulated the blood solute levels in the collecting ducts of the kidney hypothalamus detects solute concentration and if blood is too concentrates the pituitary gland releases ADH ADH stimulates the water channels which increases permeability Water moves through the aquaporins by osmosis into the blood which makes the urine more concentrated if blood is hypotonic no ADH is released = water isn't reabsorbed from collecting duct = urine is more dilute |
| Where is the nitrogenous waste excreted from? | Malpighian tubules which is connected to the digestive system |
| How is uric acid excreted from insects? (3) | Uric acid combines with the digested food products later on and are excreted from the anus with feces (uric acid is nontoxic) water absorbed by osmosis moves uric acid to hindgut solutes, water and salts are reabsorbed in the hindgut returns to hemolymph = recycled |
| What is ADH and what does it do? (5) | Antidiuretic hormone is a peptide hormone produced in the hypothalamus and released by the pituitary gland to regulate blood solute concentrations |
| Where is ADH used? (2) | In the collecting ducts of the kidney in the late distal convulating tubule |
| How is the release of ADH triggered? (5) | Hypothalamus detects solute concentration and if blood is too concentrates the pituitary gland releases ADH ADH stimulates the water channels which increases permeability Water moves through the aquaporins by osmosis into the blood which makes the urine more concentrated if blood is hypotonic no ADH is released = water isn't reabsorbed from collecting duct = urine is more dilute |
| Label and identify the functions of the different parts of the nephron (4) | Bowman's capsule: contains the glomerulus which filters the blood with hydrostatic pressure from the wide afferent and narrow efferent which creates a pressure gradient within. The basement membrane and podocytes filter out large molecules such as blood and proteins Proximal convoluted tubule: folded structure connected to the bowman's capsule where selective reabsorption occurs. Ions are actively transported with protein pumps Amino acids and glucose are transported with Na+ and H2O passively moves through with the movement of the ions with osmosis Loop Of Henle: a selective permeable loop that goes down to the medulla and creates a salt gradient to draw water out of the collecting duct. it does this by creating more solute in the medulla. The descending loop is permeable to water but not salts which makes the curve in the medulla very hypertonic Distal convoluted tube: more reabsorption occurs here (ADH is released here) |
| What are the 3 processes nephrons carry out? | Ultrafiltration: blood is filtered out of the glomerulus at the bowman's capsule to make a filtrate selective reabsorption: usable materials are reabsorbed in convoluted tubules (proximal and distal) Osmoregulation: loop of Henle creates a salt gradient which draws water out of the collecting duct |
| Describe the process of ultrafiltration and the parts of the nephron used (3) | Blood enter from the renal artery into the glomerulus through the wide afferent and leaves through the narrow efferent arteriole 1) Hydrostatic pressure: This increases the pressure within which forces the fluid into the bowman's capsule = filtrate = lacks protein and blood (large molecules) 2) basement membrane and podocytes stops large molecules from entering (size selective) = proteins and blood |
| Describe the process of selective reabsorption and the parts of the nephron used (9) | Reuptakes useful materials from filtrate in the convoluted tubes reabsorbs ions, amino acids, glucose, H2O, hormones, vitamins the tubule has: microvilli: increase SA for absorption from filtrate single cell thick and tight junction = thin surface Lots of mitochondria: active transport Substances are actively transported across the apical membrane and then passively diffuse across basolateral membrane Ions + vitamins = actively transported w protein pumps + carrier proteins Glucose + amino acids co transported across apical w Na+ (symport) water follows the movement of ions passively w osmosis |
| What is osmoregulation? (3) | Controls the water balance of the blood which happens in the medulla due to: the loop of Henle making a salt gradient (hypertonicity) ADH regulating water level reabsorption in the collecting duct |
| How is a salt gradient established in the loop of Henle? (5) | Descending limb = water permeable ascending limb: salt permeable so when the loop descends into medulla the fluid becomes salty (hypertonic) the vasa recta surrounding the loop flows in the opposite direction (counter-current) = so salt absorbed in ascending limb is also drawn down into medulla = bigger salt gradient |
| How is water drawn out of the collecting duct? | Hypertonic conditions draws water out by osmosis in the collecting duct amount released to be retained is controlled by the ADH ADH is released by the posterior pituitary when the solute conc is high which is detected by the hypothalamus ADH increases permeability of collecting duct which upregulates the production of aquaporins (water channels) less water = concentrated urine WHen hydrates = less AH = less water is reabsorbed = dilute urine ADH = Are DeHydrated |
| What can not maintaining water balance lead to? | Dehydration / overhydration |
| What happens when you're dehydrated(7) | Water loss from body so the fluid become hypertonic thirst and excrete less concentrated urine BP drops because of less water in plasma Hear rate increases Tired + can't lower body temp (lack of sweat) severe cases = seizures, brain damage, death |
| What happens when you're over hydrated? (5) | Makes fluids hypotonic excess clear urine to remove the water causes cells to swell due to osmotic movement = tissue damage headaches , blurred vision, seizures, death |
| How is the length of the loop of Henle positively correlated with the need for water conservation? | Arid desert animals will need a more efficient water conservation than animals in moist, mesic places = longer loop increases salt gradient in medulla - more water is reabsorbed = concentrated urine Moist, animals = short loops Desert animals = long loops |
| What are kidney diseases? | Conditions which stop the ability to filter waste products from the blood = reduced glomerular filtration rate (gfr) = can lead to kidney failure |
| What is used as indicator to kidney disease and why? (5) | Blood cells, glucose, proteins and drugs detected in urinary tests bec kidneys normally prevent excretion of blood and protein and glucose during ultrafiltration and reabsorption Glucose: diabetes (incomplete reabsorption) Proteins: disease (PKU ) or hormonal conditions (pregnancy) blood cells: diseases like cancer Drugs: can be detected in urine like performance enhancing drugs |
| What is a treatment for kidney failure? (6) | Hemodialysis external filtering to remove metabolic wastes blood is removed and pumped through with a dialyzer which has: semi permeable membrane and introduces fresh dialysis and removes waste to maintain conc g 4 hours / 3 x a week |
| What is the best long term treatment for kidney failure? (3) | Kidney transplants donors have to be a close genetic match to minimise rejection transplanted kidney is grafted into abdomen with arteries veins and ureter connected to vessels |
| How does the immune system distinguish between body cells and foreign cells? (2) | Eliminates foreign material all nucleated cells have distinctive surface molecules = self |
| What are the self markers on cells called? what do they do? (3) | Major histocompatibility molecules (MHC class 1) identity tags for the bodies immune system does not react to the cells |
| What is an antigen? | Foreign to the body so it triggers immune system |
| How are antigens recognized? (3) | Lymphocytes bind detect the shape of an exposed portion of the antigen called epitope |
| How do lymphocytes destroy antigens? | Lymphocytes produce antibodies (Adaptive immunity) which binds to epitope through complementary paratopes |
| How do antibodies attach to antigens? (method name) | Complementary paratopes |
| What are features of an antigen? (2) | Surface markers in blood and tissue - bacterial, fungal, viral and parasitic self markers of diff organisms |
| What are the different types of surface markers found? (4) | Bacterial, fungal, viral and parasitic |
| Why doe RBCs not have self markers? how are they recognized? (3) | Not nucleated = no self markers so RBCs can be transferred bw individuals but they have antigenic markers (limits transfusion ability) = ABO |
| What are the antigenic markers in RBCs called? (2) | ABO system surface glycoproteins |
| What are the differences in the ABO system? (2) | RBC can have A or B surface glycoproteins independently or together or have neither (O) |
| Why do blood transfusions sometimes not work? | Because people produce antibodies against foreign antibodies (diff blood type would have diff antigenic markers) |
| What blood groups are each of them compatible with? (4) | AB = all A = A or O (B isoantigen is foreign) B = B or O O = only O |
| What causes the negative or positive blood groups? | Rhesus factor glycoprotein is either present or absent = + or - |
| What happens with incompatible blood transfusion? (3) | Surface antigens + opposing antibodies = agglutination (clumping) = hemolysis (RBCs destroyed so O2 released into surroundings) |
| What is a pathogen? (3) | Agent that causes disease recognized by its antigens eg: bacteria, protist, fungi, parasite |
| What is a disease? | Affects normal functioning (can't maintain hemostasis) |
| What is an illness? | Deteriorates normal health |
| Why do some pathogens only affect humans? | Usually species specific in pathogenesis EG: polio, syphilis, measles |
| What are zoonotic diseases? (2) | From animals to humans eg: rabies (dogs) , influenza (birds), bubonic plague (rats) |
| What are different ways in which disease can be transmitted? (Disgusted Cats Are Vicious) | Direct contact - physical touch / exchanging body fluids Contamination - ingesting pathogens in food Airborne - coughing or sneezing Vectors - intermediary organisms that transfer pathogens w/o developing symptoms themselves |
| What is clonal selection? | Process of matching antigens w/ antigen receptors on B and T lymphocytes |
| What are the steps in fighting a pathogen? (6) | 1) non specific - macrophage engulf pathogens and breaks them down 2) dendritic cells have the antigen fragments and present them to specific T helper lympho which activates it 3) cytokines released 4) cytokines activate specific B cell to produce antibodies which divides and forms clones 5) clones become short lived plasma cells that produce a large quantity of an antibody 6) small group of clones become long living memory cells for immunity |
| Why are several lymphocytes activated at the same time? what is this called? (3) | Pathogens can have multiple antigenic fragments so different lymphocytes activated for different antibodies = polyclonal activation |
| What are the different methods of antibodies destroying pathogens? PANIC | Precipitation = soluble pathogens -> insoluble = solid Agglutination = clumped for easy removal Neutralization = block pathogenic regions (exotoxins = proteins released by bacteria to change cell structure) Inflammation = inflammatory response within body (histamine released) = these 4 help w/ phagocytosis Complement activation = complement proteins destroy membranes (cell lysis) |
| What are macrophages? | Phagocytic leukocytes |
| What is it called when pathogens are identified? (2) | Opsonisation - when opsonins (Antibodies) bind to bacterial cell which makes it easier for phagocytes to engulf it |
| What are memory cells? what do they do? (3) | Made from plasma cells to prevent delay after exposure to prevent symptoms developing long living reacts quickly if infected w the same pathogen |
| What is an allergen? what is the response like?(2) | Environmental substance that triggers an immune response even though it isnt harmful response is specific to exposure region (throat) = allergic reaction |
| What is a severe allergic reaction called? | Anaphylaxis |
| What are the stages of an allergic reaction? | First exposure (sensitization): 1) allergen (cat hair) enters blood 2) B cells = plasma cells = antibodies (IgE) 3) antibodies attach to mast cell (has histamine inside) second exposure (allergic reaction): 1) allergen binds to antibodies on mast cell 2) histamine released 3) allergic reaction from inflammation from histamine |