The academic discipline that examines human teaching and learning (Berliner, 2006). the content of ed psych contributes to the professional knowledge base to become an expert teacher.

Professional knowledge in teaching is divided in to 4 essential types. What are they?

1. Knowledge of content. 2. Pedagogical content knowledge. 3. General pedagogical knowledge. 4. Knowledge of learners & learning.

Describe why knowledge of content is important for an expert teacher.

We obviously can't teach what we don't understand. We need to not only know basic facts about a topic, but also show mastery over it. What the teacher knows affect how well they teach, regardless of the type of content. (Bransford, Brown & Cocking, 2000)

What is pedagogical content knowledge (PCK)?

It is an understanding of how to represent topics in ways that makes the concept understandable to learners, as well as an understanding of what makes specific topics easy or difficult to learn (Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005; Kunter et al., 2013; Shulman,1986). It also includes the teachers' abilities to identify students' most common misconceptions and to help students resolve their misunderstandings (Sadler, Sonnert, Coyle, Smith, & Miller, 2013).

Does teacher pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) affect student motivation?

Yes. High PCK not only improves students' achievements but it also improves their motivation, specifically their enjoyment of the subject (Kunter et al., 2013. p. 815)

Is knowledge of content and pedagogical content knowledge identical?

They are related but are NOT identical. For example, understanding the factors that lead to Malaysia's independence reflects knowledge of content; knowing how to illustrate this content so students can understand it reflects pedagogical content knowledge. Expert teachers possess both (Kunter et al., 2013; Loughran, Mulhall, & Berry, 2004; Segall, 2004).

In terms of pedagogical content knowledge, describe the several ways one can represent a topic for students:

1. Using examples. Examples are useful when you're teaching a well-defined topic (Renkl, 2011). Illustrations and demonstrations are also forms of examples. 2. Using case studies. Together with vignettes (short case studies), they effectively illustrate complex topics that are hard to represent with simple examples. 3. Using metaphors. A teacher can say that the loyalty students show to their school, their way of talking and their weekend activities as a metaphor for the concept of nationalism. 4. Using simulations. Simulations are effective because they provide concrete models that illustrate complex systems and process (de Jong, 2011). Students can role-play as members of Parliament to pass a law that will shape the country. 5. Using models. Models allow students to visualise something they can't observe directly. For example, a science teacher uses a model of an atom to help students visualise the nucleus and electrons.

Different from pedagogical content knowledge, what is general pedagogical knowledge?

General pedagogical knowledge involves an understanding of instructional strategies and classroom management that apply to all subjects matter areas and topics (Borko & Putnam, 1996; Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005).

In terms of general pedagogical knowledge, what are instructional strategies?

It involves knowing how to structure effective lessons that involves students in learning and check for understanding. For example, involving all students in a lesson by calling on them as equally as possible is important whether you're teaching 1st graders, middle school learners, or advanced high school students (Good & Brophy, 2008; Lemov 2010).

In terms of general pedagogical knowledge, what is classroom management?

Classroom management is the skills required to plan, implement and monitor rules and procedures; organise gorups; and intervene when misbehaviour occurs. This is towards the goal of creating an effective classroom environment that is safe, orderly, and focused on learning (Emmer & Evertson, 2013).

How important is knowledge of learners and learning for a teacher?

It is "arguably the most important knowledge a teacher can have" (Borko & Putnam, 1996, p. 675).

Describe some of the ways where knowledge of learners become important.

Teachers must understand how students' thinking develops, and understand how to represent topics in developmentally appropriate ways. Teachers must understand how to make students more aware of the way they think and how to become more strategic in their approaches to learning (Bruning et al., 2011, Veenman, 2011). Teachers must also understand how and when to praise or criticise a student such that it is beneficial for their academic, emotional and physical developments.

Why is knowledge of learning important?

Knowledge of learning is important because the better we understand the different ways people learn, the better we can help them make sense of a particular topic or information. Expert teachers have a thorough understanding of how learning occurs and what they can do to promote it. Students interpret things in personal and idiosyncratic ways (Dubinksky, Roehrig, & Varma, 2013; Edwards, Esmonde, & Wagner, 2011; Hattie & Gan, 2011). In this process, meaning can be distorted, sometimes profoundly. Students acquire ideas from how they interpreted what they heard, experienced, or read; related it to what they already knew; and attempted to make sense of it.

In the field of education, what is reflective practice?

It is the process of critical self-examination of one's teaching (Clark, 2006; McGregor, 2011).

What is the purpose of reflective practice?

It is to better promote student learning, and research suggests that reflective practice can help us become more sensitive to student differences (Berril & Whalen, 2007) Reflective practice also helps us to be more aware of the impact of our instruction on learning (Gimbel, 2008). .

How do we define research?

Research is the process of systematically gathering information in an attempt to answer professional questions. It is an important source of the knowledge needed for expert teaching. All professions use research to guide their practice (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2010; Van Horn, 2008).

Name the 3 forms that quantitative research can exist in.

Quantitative research can exist in descriptive, correlational and experimental forms.

Research in education exists in many forms. What are they?

1. Quantitative research (including descriptive research, correlational research, and experimental research). 2. Qualitative research. 3. Action research. 4. Design-based research

What does quantitative research refer to?

Quantitative research refers to the systematic, empirical investigation of phenomena using NUMERICAL data and often involving statistical and mathematical techniques.

In relation to quantitative study, what is descriptive research?

Descriptive research uses tools such as tests, surveys and observations to describe the status or characteristics of a situation or phenomena (Gall et al., 2010).

How can descriptive research may answer the question "How much are our students learning?"

To answer this question, for example, the Malaysian Ministry of Education could assess our country's students in a variety of areas, including math, science, reading and writing, the arts, economics, geography, history starting from a chosen time period. This is a form of descriptive research, and educators can use it to measure the effectiveness of different programs and to make comparisons with other schools/institutions.

Do surveys and firsthand observations count as descriptive research?

Yes. Both are a form of descriptive research. An example of a survey is the American Gallup Poll of the Public's Attitude Toward the Public Schools (Bushaw & Lopez, 2013)., An example of first hand observations is when Jean Piaget (1959) used systematic observations of children as his primary research technique in pioneering the study of cognitive development.

Name one advantage and one disadvantage of descriptive research in the field of education.

Advantage: descriptive research provides valuable information about a variety of topics in education. Number of schools, rate of student drop outs, number of students in low-income families etc. Disadvantage: descriptive research doesn't allow us to predict future events, and it doesn't identify relationships.

In terms of quantitative study, what is correlational research?

Correlational research is the process of looking for relationships between variables that enables researches to predict changes in one variable on the basis of changes in another. A correlation is a relationship, either positive or negative between two or more variables. For example we can conduct a correlational research between student absences and their overall final grade. It is important tor remember that a correlation doesn't imply that one variable causes the other.

In terms of quantitative study, what is experimental research?

Whereas correlational research looks for relationship in existing situations, experimental research systematically manipulates variables in attempts to determine cause and effect (Springer, 2010).

What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research attempts to describe a complex educational phenomenon in a holistic fashion using NON-NUMERICAL data, such as words and pictures (Johnson & Christensen, 2011).

What are the general differences in the outcomes between quantitative research and qualitative research?

The results of qualitative studies are published in narrative reports with detailed descriptions of settings and participants, whereas quantitative studies typically result in reports with correlations and other statistical techniques (Gay, Mills & Airasian, 2012).

Provide an example of any qualitative study of teaching.

As seen in 'First Year Teacher' by Bullough, (1989), the researcher's goal was to describe, from the teacher's perspective, what it's like to be a first-year teacher. He spent a year observing a first-year, middle school language arts teacher, interviewing her, and collecting artifacts such as lesson plans and assignments. A realistic account of the triumphs and difficulties encountered by one teacher emerged from the study. As in other qualitative studies, the researcher did not claim that this teacher's experience generalised to the experiences of all first-year teachers. Instead, he simply attempted to describe one teacher's experience in as much detail as possible and then allow readers to draw their own conclusions about that teacher's experiences.

What is meant by action research?

Action research are applied research designed to answer a specific school- or classroom-related question. It can use either quantitative or qualitative methods (Gay et al., 2012).

Provide example research questions for action research.

As we teach, we'll have questions about the effects our actions have on students' learning. These questions might include: 1. How much homework should I give? 2. Should I systematically grade homework, or merely check to see if students have completed it? 3. Have often should I give quizzes? 4. Should I ever give my students free time to socialise with other classmates?

What were the criticisms in the field of education that led to the development of design-based research?

The criticisms were that research in education lacks impact on classroom practice. "It is both surprising and depressing that many educators cannot think of a single research output or can think of only trivial outputs that meet this practical and important outcome of research" (Anderson & Shattuck, 2012, p. 18).

According to Anderson & Shattuck (2012, p. 17), what are the characteristics of design-based research?

1. Design-based research is conducted in a real-world context, such as a classroom. 2. It focus on the design and testing of educational interventions, which could be a specific learning activity, type of assessment, administrative innovation (such as starting school later in the morning), or application of some form of technology, among many others. 3. It uses mixed methods, such as combining experimental and qualitative methods. 4. It involves multiple iterations, that is, it repeats the process with the aim of approaching a desired goal. The result of one iteration is used as a starting point for the next one. 5. It involves a partnership between researchers and practitioners. 6. It is intended to contribute to theory.

Is design-based research the same as action research? If they are different, what are some of the differences?

No, they are not the same. When action research is conducted, the educator, such as a teacher or administrator is both researcher and teacher, whereas a design-based study involves a partnership between researchers and practitioners. "The partnership in design-based research recognises that teachers are usually too busy and often ill trained to conduct rigorous research" (Anderson & Shattuck, 2012, p. 17). It is also recognised that teachers working in the real world of classrooms are essential for a study's validity. Furthermore, design-based research doesn't exclusively on a local need, as would be the case with action research. Design-based research also attempts to contribute to theories that are applicable to a variety of settings.

If conducted successfully, what does design-based research aim to provide?

Design-based research aims to provide us with concrete and practical suggestions for improving our teaching.

What is arguably, the goal of all research?

To contribute to theory.

What is defined by theory?

In educational psychology, theory is the systematic collection of data and the forming of patterns over time.

Provide 3 reasons why theories are useful.

1. Theories help ORGANISE research findings and can provide valuable guidance for our teaching. For example, the theory of behaviourism. 2. Theories allow us to EXPLAIN events in our classrooms and the world at large. For example, Piaget's theory of cognitive development helps us explain the thinking of young children. 3. Theories also allow us to PREDICT behaviour and events. For example, based on behaviourism, we would predict that students who periodically receive positive comments on essays will try harder than either students who receive no comments at all, or students who receive effusively positive comments.

In order to become an expert teacher, we need to be aware of the challenges that lie ahead. Provide an overview of what you may encounter at the beginning of your teaching career.

1. Standards and accountability

In order to become an expert teacher, we need to be aware of the challenges that lie ahead. Provide an overview of what you may encounter at the beginning of your teaching career.

1. Standards and accountability. 2. Teacher licensure and evaluation. 3. Learner diversity. 4. Technology. 5. The influence of neuroscience.

In a school setting, what is meant by academic standards?

Academic standards are statements set by the curriculum/Ministry of Education that describe what students should know or be able to do at the end of a prescribed period of study.

In a school setting, what is meant by accountability?

Accountability is the process of requiring students to demonstrated that they have met standards as met by standardised tests.

There are 2 stages of teacher licensure and evaluation. What are they?

1st stage: Before I begin teaching I will have to pass a licensure exam. 2nd stage: Throughout my career there will be ongoing evaluations on my performance.

What is meant by teacher evaluation?

It is the process of assessing teachers' classroom performance and providing feedback they can use to increase their expertise.

According to a report by the American National School Boards Association Center for Public Education (2013), what are some of the trends in teacher evaluation?

1. Stakeholders (including teachers) need to be involved in providing input for the design of evaluation systems. 2. Teachers are evaluated on multiple measures. In addition to test scores and classroom observations, these evaluations may include measures such as student and parent surveys, examinations of lesson plans, teacher self-assessments, student artifacts, and teacher portfolio. 3. Student test-scores are naturally very important to teacher evaluation. 4. Classroom observations are a necessary component to teacher evaluation. The goal is to use well-trained observers to ensure that teachers being evaluated received similar scores regardless of who conducts the observations, and observation instruments are supposed to be based on practices most likely to increase student learning. 5. While most evaluations are done with the purpose of raising teacher performance, some are done to inform personnel decisions, such as teacher retention and salary increases.

What is the feeling/spirit one should have towards teacher evaluation?

Teacher evaluation should be an opportunity for you to demonstrate your expertise and receive feedback that will help you improve in areas where needed. None of us teach perfect lessons, and we can all improve.

How should teachers approach learner diversity?

Students now come for many diverse backgrounds, and this diversity will be both enriching and challenging. However, an expert teacher must have high knowledge of learners and learning so he/she should acknowledge and embrace diversity in classrooms.

Give some examples of the evolution of technology in the classroom.

1. You will sometimes email various members of the school. 2. You will store lesson plans and many teaching resources on the computer. 3. You will access and display slides from a projector connected to a computer. 4. Some classrooms come equipped with an interactive whiteboard. 5. A growing number of teachers are using social media, such as blogs, wikis, Twitter an others to promote learning (Seo, 2013). 6. Students are becoming more technologically savvy. Teachers should capitalise on the benefits of technology and meet its challenges instead of avoiding technological progress.

How do we define neuroscience?

Neuroscience is the study of how the nervous system develops, how it's structured, and what it does. It is an an interdisciplinary science that links with other fields such as law, psychology, and education.

Describe 2 ways that neuroscience can contribute to our understanding of learning and teaching.

1. It provides evidence that confirms teaching practices that we have long believe are important, such as the need for active learning. "Many research studies suggest that active engagement is a prerequisite for changes in the brain (Van Dam, 2013, p. 32). 2. Neuroscience provides insights into the brain and the way it works.

What is the concept of neuroplasticity?

Neuroplasticity (or brain plasticity or simply plasticity) is defined as the brain's ability to physically remodel itself in response to experience (Dubinsky et al., 2013; Pascual-Leone, Amedi, Fregni, & Merabet, 2005). In other words, as we acquire experiences, the brain can literally wire itself (Schachter, 2012).