After the study, researchers must explain the true purpose, answer any questions, and check participants' well-being. If deception was used, it must be clarified.

Laboratory experiments description

Conducted in a controlled setting where the IV is manipulated.

Laboratory experiments advantages

High control of variables → Increases internal validity. Replication is easier → Increases reliability. Precise measurement → Reduces extraneous variables.

Animal ethical concerns

Minimising harm, replacement, species, numbers, procedures, pain suffering and distress, housing, reward deprivation and aversive stimuli

Animal ethical concerns

Minimising harm, replacement, species, numbers, procedures, pain suffering and distress, housing, reward deprivation and aversive stimuli

Laboratory experiments disadvantages

Low ecological validity → Artificial setting may not reflect real-life behaviour. Demand characteristics → Participants may guess the aim and change behaviour. Ethical concerns → Some studies involve deception or stress.

Field experiments descriptions

Conducted in a natural environment with IV manipulation.

Animal ethical concerns

Minimising harm, replacement, species, numbers, procedures, pain suffering and distress, housing, reward deprivation and aversive stimuli

Applying ethics to a research situation

Consider whether animal use is justified. Ensure minimal suffering and appropriate living conditions. Follow ethical regulations (e.g., using the 3Rs: Replacement, Reduction, Refinement).

Field experiments advantages

Higher ecological validity → Behaviour is more natural. Less demand characteristics → Participants may be unaware they’re in an experiment. Applicable to real life → Findings are more generalisable.

Field experiments disadvantages

Lower control over variables → Increases risk of confounding variables. Replication is difficult → Reduces reliability. Ethical issues → Participants may not have given informed consent Participants may not have given informed consent.

Applying ethics to a research situation

Consider whether animal use is justified. Ensure minimal suffering and appropriate living conditions. Follow ethical regulations (e.g., using the 3Rs: Replacement, Reduction, Refinement).

Independent measures designs description

Different participants take part in each condition.

Applying ethics to a research situation

Consider whether animal use is justified. Ensure minimal suffering and appropriate living conditions. Follow ethical regulations (e.g., using the 3Rs: Replacement, Reduction, Refinement).

Independent measures designs advantages

No order effects → Participants only do one condition. Less demand characteristics → Less likely to guess the aim. Time-efficient → No need for breaks between conditions.

Unstructured

Recording all relevant behaviour without predefined categories.

Independent measures designs disadvantages

Participant variables → Individual differences may affect results. More participants needed → Increases cost and time. Less control over confounding variables → Differences between groups could affect results.

Unstructured

Recording all relevant behaviour without predefined categories.

Controlled

Observation in a setting manipulated by the researcher.

Repeated measures designs description

Same participants take part in all conditions.

Repeated measures design advantages

Controls participant variables → Increases validity. Requires fewer participants → More time and cost-effective. More statistical power → Differences between conditions are clearer.

Repeated measures design disadvantages

Order effects (practice/fatigue) → Participants may improve or tire out. Demand characteristics → Participants may guess the aim. Time-consuming → Participants must wait between conditions.

Matched pairs design description

Participants are paired based on characteristics and assigned to different conditions.

Matched pairs design advantages

Controls participant variables → Improves internal validity. No order effects → Each participant does one condition. Reduces demand characteristics → Participants don’t compare conditions.

Matched pairs design disadvantages

Difficult to match participants perfectly → Small differences may still exist. Time-consuming → Matching requires pre-testing. More participants needed → Increases cost.

Counter balancing

A method to control order effects in repeated measures designs by varying the order of conditions.

Random allocation

Description: Assigning participants to different conditions randomly to minimise biases. Example: Using random number generators to assign participants to control or experimental groups.

Order effects description

Description: Changes in participants' performance due to the sequence of conditions experienced.

Order effects types

Practice Effect: Improvement due to familiarity with the task. Fatigue Effect: Decline in performance due to tiredness or boredom.

Control methods for order effects

Counterbalancing or ensuring sufficient rest between tasks.

Use of experimental groups

Purpose: To compare outcomes and determine the effect of the IV. Example: In drug trials, the experimental group receives the medication, while the control group receives a placebo.

Use of control methods

Purpose: To provide a baseline for comparison. Example: Measuring participants' reaction times with and without caffeine intake.

Case study method description

An in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, or event to explore causation and find underlying principles.

Case study method features

Focus on a single unit of study. Utilises multiple data sources (e.g., interviews, observations). Provides detailed qualitative data.

Questionnaire techniques

Paper and Pencil: Traditional method where participants fill out physical forms. Online: Digital forms completed via the internet.

Questionnaire question formats

Open Questions: Allow free-form responses, providing rich qualitative data. Closed Questions: Provide fixed choices, yielding quantitative data.

Questionnaire advantages

Quick and easy to distribute → Efficient for large samples. Standardised format → Increases reliability. Participants may be more honest → Especially for sensitive topics.

Questionnaire disadvantages

Response bias → Participants may answer in socially desirable ways. Limited depth of answers → Closed questions restrict detail. Misinterpretation → Participants may not understand the questions.

Interviews format

Structured: Pre-determined questions in a fixed order. Unstructured: Flexible, open-ended questions guided by the interviewee's responses. Semi-Structured: Combines fixed questions with opportunities for exploration.

Interviews techniques

Telephone: Conducted over the phone, offering convenience. Face-to-Face: In-person interactions, allowing for observation of non-verbal cues.

Interviews advantages

Rich, detailed data → Especially with open-ended questions. Clarification possible → Interviewer can explain questions. Higher response rate → Participants are more engaged

Interviews disadvantages

Interviewer bias → Their tone or wording may influence responses. Time-consuming → Requires scheduling and transcription. Lack of anonymity → Participants may not be completely honest.

Observational methods

Overt, covert, participant, non-participant, structured, unstructured, naturalistic, controlled

Overt

Participants are aware they are being observed.

Covert

Observation without participants' knowledge.

Participant

Observer becomes part of the group being studied.

Non-participant

Observer remains detached and does not interact.

Structured

Use of predefined categories for recording behaviour.

Unstructured

Recording all relevant behaviour without predefined categories.

Naturalistic

Observing behaviour in its natural environment.

Controlled

Observation in a setting manipulated by the researcher.

Observation advantages

High ecological validity - naturalistic observations provide realistic data as they occur in real life settings useful when other method are unethical - allows studying behaviours that cannot be manipulated like aggression rich detailed data - can provide in depth qualitative insights

Observation disadvantages

Observer bias - researcher may interpret behaviour subjectively lack of control - in naturalistic settings, extraneous variables may affect results ethical issues - covert observations raise privacy concerns

Application of observation

Consider the type of observation that suits the scenario (e.g., naturalistic vs. controlled). Identify whether participant/non-participant methods are appropriate. Determine if structured or unstructured recording methods should be used.

Aims

Description: The general purpose or intent of the research. Example: Investigating the effect of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance.

Null hypothesis

States there is no effect or difference. Example: Sleep deprivation has no effect on cognitive performance

Alternative hypothesis

States there is an effect or difference.

Types of alternative hypothesis

Directional (One-Tailed): Specifies the direction of the effect. Example: Sleep deprivation decreases cognitive performance. Non-Directional (Two-Tailed): Does not specify the direction. Example: Sleep deprivation affects cognitive performance.

Independent Variable (IV)

Description: The variable manipulated by the researcher. Example: Amount of sleep (e.g., 4 hours vs. 8 hours).

Dependent Variable (DV)

Description: The variable measured to assess the effect of the IV. Example: Scores on a cognitive performance test.

Operationalising

Description: Clearly defining variables in measurable terms. Operationalising IV: Specifying how the IV is manipulated. Example: Participants receive either 4 hours or 8 hours of sleep.

Types of variables

Uncontrolled variables - factors not accounted for which may affect results participant variables - individual differences e.g. intelligence, mood situational variables - environmental factors e.g. noise, time of day

How to control variables

Standardisation - keeping procedure identical for all participants use of controls - ensuring external factors do not affect the results

Applying control methods in research

Random allocation - reduces participant-related confounding variables counter balancing - controls for order effects in repeated measures designs using a control group - helps isolate the effect of the IV

Types of data

Quantitative data - numerical qualitative data - descriptive objective - measurable and not influenced by personal opinions subjective - influenced by personal perspective like feelings or options

Advantages of quantitative data

Easier to analyse - statistical comparisons can be made more reliable - consistency across different studies less researcher bias - less interpretation is needed

Disadvantages of quantitative data

Lack of depth - does not provide insight into emotions or experiences over-simplifies behaviour - human thoughts and feelings are complex can miss context - ignores the meaning behind responses

Advantages of qualitative data

Rich in detail - provides deep insights high validity - captures genuine experiences useful for complex topics - ideal for studying human emotions and social behaviour

Disadvantages of qualitative data

Difficult to analyse - harder to compare responses subjectivity - researcher bias may influence conclusions less replicable - findings may not generalise well

Applying data to a research scenario

Identify whether numerical or descriptive data is needed, consider how data collection impacts reliability and validity, determine if mixed-method approaches are beneficial

Opportunity sampling advantages

Quick and easy - uses readily available participants convenient - no need for recruitment useful for pilot studies - can test methods before larger studies

Opportunity sampling disadvantages

Not representative - may be biased towards certain groups higher risk of researcher bias - selection may be influenced findings are harder to generalise - limited sample diversity

Random sampling advantages

Unbiased - every participant has an equal chance of selection more representative - reduces selection bias can be generalised - findings are more applicable to a larger population

Random sampling disadvantages

Time consuming - need to identify all potential participants not always practical - some people may refuse to participate still had an element of chance - may not fully eliminate bias

Volunteer sampling advantages

Ethically sound - participants choose to take part quick and easy - less researcher effort required higher commitment - participants are usually more engaged

Volunteer sampling disadvantages

Volunteer bias - sample may not be representative may attract a certain personality type - more confident or more motivated individuals generalisation is limited - findings may not apply to a wider population

Human ethical concerns

Minimising harm, informed consent, right to withdraw, lack of deception, confidentiality, privacy, debriefing

Minimising harm

Researchers must ensure that participants are not exposed to physical or psychological plan beyond what they would encounter daily in life

Informed consent

Participant must be fully informed about the nature of the study, including what they will be asked to do in the study, any risks involved and their rights they must give their voluntary agreement before participating

Right to withdraw

Participant can leave the study at any time even after giving consent without facing any consequences. They can also request that their data is removed.

Lack of deception

Researchers should avoid misleading participants about the true aim of the study unless deception is necessary for valid results. If deception is used, it must be minimal and justified, and participants should be fully debriefed afterward.

Confidentiality

Personal data, identities, and responses must be kept private and anonymous. This protects participants from potential negative consequences (e.g., embarrassment, discrimination).

Privacy

Researchers must not invade participants' personal space or private lives without permission. This applies especially in observational studies—if the behavior occurs in a private setting, consent must be obtained.

Debriefing

After the study, researchers must explain the true purpose, answer any questions, and check participants' well-being. If deception was used, it must be clarified.

Animal ethical concerns

Minimising harm, replacement, species, numbers, procedures, pain suffering and distress, housing, reward deprivation and aversive stimuli

Minimising harm

Researchers must ensure animals do not experience unnecessary pain or distress.

Replacement

Using alternative methods or species instead of animals when possible.

Species

Choosing the appropriate species for the research, considering their capacity to suffer and the relevance to the study.

Numbers

Using the minimum number of animals necessary to achieve valid results.

Procedures

Ensuring that procedures are designed to minimise harm and distress to animals.

Pain suffering and distress

Minimizing any pain, suffering, or distress experienced by animals during the study.

Housing

Providing appropriate living conditions for animals, including space, social interaction, and environmental enrichment.

Reward deprivation and aversive stimuli

Ensuring that any rewards, deprivations, or aversive stimuli used are justified and do not cause unnecessary harm.

Advantages of ethical guidelines

Ensures Humane Treatment – Reduces unnecessary suffering. Encourages Alternative Methods – Promotes ethical advancements in research. Improves Scientific Standards – Well-treated animals yield more reliable results.

Disadvantages of ethical guidelines

Still Causes Harm – Some level of suffering may be unavoidable. Difficult to Generalise to Humans – Animal models do not always apply to human psychology. Can Be Costly – Ethical treatment requires significant resources.

Applying ethics to a research situation

Consider whether animal use is justified. Ensure minimal suffering and appropriate living conditions. Follow ethical regulations (e.g., using the 3Rs: Replacement, Reduction, Refinement).