The naming of any individual consists of its genus name (common name) and its species name accompanied with the initials of the botanist who discovered this individual. Genus and species name are in italic, genus with uppercase and species with lowercase, the common name is called the vernacular or vulgar name.

Can a species be divided?

Yes it can be divided into subspecies, races, varieties, or forms having same essential characters and can be distinguished by slight differences.

What is the order of specification terms?

Species- genus- family- order- class- phylum (from most specific to least)

What are the units of specifications called?

Taxa (plural of Taxon)

With what letters do each taxon end?

Family (aceae) , order (ales) , class (opsida), phylum (phyta)

How did Linnaeus classify living organisms?

He classified them into two kingdoms (plantae and animalia) those who eat and move are classified animalia, those who don't are classified plantae. Fungus, algae and bacterium were plantae, protozoa were animalia. Eukaryotes, who were able to move but feed over photosynthesis were classified in both animalia and plantae.

What was classification came after Linnaeus?

Jussieu and De Candolle divided plants into three divisions; Acotyledon, monocotyledon, and dicotyledon. And then they used different characters (embryo, stamens, pistil, floral envelope) determining new families classifying all species in families.

What are cotyledons?

They are like seeds that grow after a while of the seed coming out of the ground

What are cotyledons?

They are like seeds that grow after a while of the seed coming out of the ground

What classification came out according to evolution?

Darwin and LaMarck grouped species according to their phylogeny (evolutionary history). Each taxon has to be monophyletic

How did Haeckel divide the living world?

Protista, animalia, plantae.

How did Copeland divide the living world?

Eukayotes (animalia, plantae, and protista) and prokaryotes (Monera)

How did Margulis classify kingdoms?

Prokaryotes (monera) and eukaryotes (animalia, plantae, protista and mycetes-fungi)

What are protista?

Single celled organisms. Eukaryotes.

What are autotrophs?

Auto- trophs (food) - are organisms that can feed themselves by photosynthesis (plants)

What are heterotrophs?

Animals and fungi that need to feed over decaying organic matter (fungi) or ingestion (animals)

Who was the first to discover the six modern kingdoms?

Carl Woese.

What are the six modern classifying kingdoms?

Eukaryotes (animalia, plantae, mycetes, and protisa) and prokaryotes (bacteria and archaebacteria)

What are the three domains of classifications done by Woese and his collegues?

Bacteria, archabacteria, and eukaryotes.

How do Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes differ in: organisms, cell size, cellular organization, metabolism, nucleus membrane, DNA, organelles, reproduction?

Prokaryotes (bacteria, 1-10 microm, one cell, aerobic and anaerobic, abscent, circular in nucleoid, abscent, scissiparity.) Eukaryotes (plants,animals,fungus, and protista, 5-100 microm, multicellular with cell differentiation, aerobic, present, linear in nucleus, present, mitosis and meosis)

What is the traditional Classification of Plant kingdom?

Thallophyta (thallus female reproductive system), Cromophyta (bryophytes, pteridoophytes, speratophytes) (cromus female reproductive system)

WWhat are the non-vascular plants?

Thallophytes and Bryophytes

What are the vascular plants, and what are two other names for vascular?

Pteridophytes and spermatophytes, tracheophytes (conductive apparatues (xylem and phloem)), rhizophyts (roots)

What are the plants without seeds and flowers called?

Cryptogams

What are the ones with seeds and flowers called?

Phanerogams.

What are the archgoniates?

Bryophytes, pteridophytes and gymnosperms (female reproductive system)

What is the only non-archegoniate?

Angoisperms

What are bacteria?

Prokaryotic and unicellular microorganisms. They are the simplest and most abundant structres on earth's surface.

Why do bacteria expand fastly?

Their expansion is due to their highly metabolic diversity and rapid division

Are bacteria essential for world life?

The vast majority is essential as a source of significant economic products (vitamins, antibiotics) and play a role in decomposition and recycling of soil organic matter. However some are pathogenic for both animals and plants.

Describe the morphology of monera

Come in great sizes and shapes, most are from 0.2-2 microm in diameter or 2-8 microm in length. most are single celled, but others are found in colonies or as filaments of joint cells, they have three main shapes :spehrical coccus, rod shaped bacillus, spiral.

Describe cocci bacteria.

Usually round but can be oval, elongated or flattened on one side.

How do cocci divide to reproduce?

Cells remain attached to each other, pairs are called diplococci, chainlike cells are called streptococci.

Describe bacilli.

Appear as single rods.

How do bacilli reproduce?

Pairs (diplobacilli) chains (streptobacilli)

Describe spiral bacteria.

Have one or more twists, never straight.

What are the types of spiral bacteria?

Vibrios (curved rods) spirilla(helical shaped like a spring not flexible) spirocheetes (spring but flexible)

What do bacterial cytoplasm contain?

No nuclei, mitochondria, ER, golgi complex, lysosomes. cell membrane encloses dense cytoplasm called (cytosol) containing ribosomes and enzymes needed for metabolism. Some bacteria have gas vacuoles that allow them to sink deeper in aqua. DNA is single circular chromosome, double stranded assosciated with different proteins, histones) located in nucleoid.

What are plasmids?

Small extrachromosomal DNA molecules capable of self-replication. They often bear genes conferring resistance to antibiotics (capsules)

Describe bacterial cell membrane?

Selectively permeable, (selective passage of molecules-nutrients wastes...) in photosynthetic bacteria, membrane invagination form thylakoids (photosynthesis site) cell membrane is surrounded by cell wall ensuring protection, stiffness and resistance to osmotic pressure. cell wall is the main difference that characterizes Eu and Archeabacteria.

What are flagella?

They are tails that allow motility, found once or more in a bacteria, their rotation produces cell movement and cells with no flagella motile through secrete sticky substances, and may be involved in virulence (ghargharina)

What are fimbriae?

Filamentous structure, serves to attach organism to a food source or other surfaces.

What are pilli?

Filamentous structures involved in conjugation between prokaryotes, serving first to connect to cells and then draw them together for DNA transfer by retracting (like bees) some are involved in pathogenicity and also serve as receptors for specific bacteriophages.

How are bacteria able to orient?

Through chemical stimuli (chemotaxis-movement) or light stimuli (phototaxis)

What are the necessary elements for a bacteria to metabolize?

Energy and carbon.

Classify bacteria according to energy source?

Phototrophs (light, convert light to chemical energy via photosynthesis) chemotrophs (inorganic or organic chemicals)

Classify bacteria according to carbon source

Autotrophs (using CO2 as carbon source) Heterotrophs (organic compounds f.i. glucose)

What are the main types of heterotrophs?

Saprophytes (majority sapros=rotten) parasitic or symbiotic

Talk about saprophytes.

Carbon source are dead or partially dead organic matter in presence or absence of O2 decomposers of organic matter into inorganic state (C,N,S,P)

Talk about symbiotic heterotrophs.

(symbiotic=mutual benifit) as Rhizobium lives inside roots of legumes and fix N2 which is not directly used by a plant.

Talk about parasitic heterotrophs.

Use organic matter in plants and animals, the become pathogenic if they are at origin of disease.

How can we classify bacteria based on O2 usage?

Strict aerobic require O2 for respiration strict anaerobic O2 poisons them Facultative aerobic able to live regardless

How can we classify bacteria by Heat usage?

Psychrophilic (low temp) mesophilic (moderate temp) moderate thermophilic (high temp) hyperthermophilic (very high temp)

What are the necessary elements for growth of bacteria?

Heat and O2

What are Eubacteria?

EU=true, diverse but conform general characteristics, classified based on staining properties, type of metabolism, shape, cell wall structure, locomotion type (motility)

What do bacterial cell walls have in common?

They contain peptidoglycans (carbohydrates connected to polypeptides)

How are Eubacteria classified according to cell wall?

According to wall structure identified by gram staining: gram positive (single thick layer of peptidoglycans) gram negative (two layers one thin inner layer and one outer similar to plasma membrane.

What are endospores?

Spores formed within the cell wall of a parent ""Gram+""" bacteria, their production increases survival ability for bacteria, and can remain viable (able to multiply) for centuries under uncomfortable conditions resisting desiccation (dehydration) and not killed by high temperatures (80C) suspended in boiling water for over 20 min without dying.

What is cyanobacteria composed from?

Bluish green, sometimes purplish photosynthetic bacteria, have chlorophyll "a" (present in all photosynthetic bacteria, carotenoids, and other accessory pigments, phycobilins.

What gives cyanobacteria its color?

Phycobilins involved in capturing of light energy and mask chlorophyll.

What are the types of phycobilin?

Phycocyanin (blue pigment) phycoerythrin (red pigment)

How is cyanobacteia's plasma membrane?

They form many invaginations, often cocentric and parallel, called thylakoids, phycobilin is located on the outer thylakoid/

What is the main sugar reserve for cyanobacteria?

Glucose.

How do cyanobacteria move?

Through sliding (no flagella).

What type of bacteria is cyanobacteria?

Gram-, can be unicellular or colonies or multicellular filaments called trichomes.

What is the role of filamentous cyanobacteria ?

Fixing atmospheric N2 through specialized cells, heterocysts, some form resistant cells called akinetes with thick wall and resistant to drought.

Where are cyanobacteria mainly found?

Bottom of deep water and moist soils, some develop on water surfaces called planktonic species.

Talk about mycoplasma.

Particular group of bacteria lacking cell walls, have many forms stick to branched filaments, all parasites cause lung diseases for animals and phtopathologic diseases in plants.

What are archaebacteria?

Group of primitive bacteria present since 3.5 billion years, very different than other prokaryotes (absence of peptidoglycans in cell walls/ have unusual lipids- ether not ester- in plasma membrane/ distinctive RNA molecules/ RNA polymerase is like eukaryotic one)

Where does archaebacteria inhibit?

Extreme environments, unsustainable to eubacteria hot springs (temp>100C deep sea vents that spew sulfide) , some live in soil others live in marine environments that exceed oceanic picoplankton (not pathogens to humans)

How are archaebacteria classified base on metabolic characteristics?

Metahnobacteria, Halobacteria, Extreme thermophile and thermoplasma.

Talk about mehanogens.

Produce methane from H2 and CO2, chemoautotrophs and strict anaerobic, use ammonium as a nitrogen source, but can fix nitrogen, common in tidal marshes and ocean depths. used as decomposers for wastewater treatments, they produced the largest gas reserves also found in the cattle and other ruminant's intestine, play a role in cellulose digestion.

Talk about Halophiles.

Live in areas where salt concentration is high, used for production for kitchen salt, most extreme ones live in (12-23% NaCl) cell walls, ribosomes and enzymes are stabilized by Na+ they are slightly aerobic, can be chemheterotroph, for some light intervenes in synthesis of ATP without intervention of chlorophyll pigment. ATP production is due to protein, bacteriorhodopsin present in plasma membrane, giving pink color to colonies forming masses in sea water.

Talk about extreme thermophiles.

Live in hot and acidic medium, growth is optimal at more than 80C and pH 2-4 strict anaerobic found in places rich in sulfur, such as hotsprings in Iceland, also thrive in hydrothermal fissures on ocean floor

Talk about thermoplasma.

One species belonging to genus thermoplasma lack cell wall have a small size and can be spherical or filamentary, live in places with temperature 32-80 C facultative anaerobic.

Talk about red algae

Marine organisms, live in fresh water or attached to rocks, Thallus is rarely unicellular, filamentous or parenchymatous. Reserve is floridean starch granules. Pecto-cellulosic cell wall consists of outer mucilaginous layer agar and carrageenan (jelly) which prevents colonization by other organisms reducing light exposure. Some incorporate calcium carbonate in cell wall participating in building coral reef, few devoid of assimilating pigments are parasitic.

Talk about protista as a homogenous kingdom.

Grouped structurally similar organisms (mostly unicellular eukaryotes) but also they are the catch all of eukaryotic organisms that are none of the other kingdoms.

What are the cell types of protista?

Unicellular or microscopic organisms, but it also has relatively simple multicellular organisms. Most diverse eukaryotes, some are closer to other kingdoms than the others. Various shapes, with or without cell wall, flagella, amoeboid cells (phagocytic cells that alter their shapes) , simple or branched filaments or leaves, one or two layers or multinucleated masses without cell walls.

Where are protists found?

Aquatic (oceans, freshwater lakes, ponds, rivers..) some live in deep oceans coastal or attached to rocks, some in terrestial habitats but must be moist (soil, decaying leaves)

How do protists resist extreme conditions? Reproduce?

By turning into cysts , reproduce asexually but some have sexual reproduction

How are protista classified according to carbon source?

Autotrophic, heterotrophic and mixotrophic

What are the three main subkingdoms of protists?

Plantlike photosynthetic ( algae; photoautotrophs) Fungi form (feed by absorption; heterotrophic) Animal like (heterotrophic; ingest their food) (only required are plant and fungi like)

Talk about the algae subkingdom of protists.

Also called phycophytes, eukaryotic thallophytes , are mostly aquatic photosynthetic aerobic autotrophs. Some are benthic (attached to bottom of a coast) others are planktonic (attached to the top); they are the primary producers of marine ecosystem (sea living world)

How are algae diverse in terms of nutrition?

Majority of the groups have heterotrophic species , that either ingest their nutrients (phagocytosis/ phagotrophic) or through uptake of dissolved organic compounds (osmotrophic) some are auxotrophic (incapable of synthesizing some nutrients like vitamins)

What are the main morphological forms algae present in?

(from microscopic unicellular to several meters (laminaria) -Unicells (some are non-motile, others can posses one or more flagella, this can be either unicellular or colonial) - Colonial ( often united by mucilage, cells can be flagellated or non-motile, some are of predictable amount of cells called coenobium.) -Filaments (branched or not, crawling or erect) -Parenchymatous (have parts that resemble leaves stems and roots although not differentiated) -Coenocytic (less common with a coenocytic or siphonous growth, one large cell with multicucleated, without cross walls with cell wall all around it.

How do all algae capture light?

By chlorophyll a (cyanobacteria and plants) and supernumerary pigments that capture wavelengths not captured by chlorophyll a.

How are algae classified into phyla?

Pigment composition, energy storage products, cell wall presence and composition, presence and number of flagella. -Chlorophytes (green algae) -Euglenophytes (Euglenoids) -Bacilliarophytes (diatoms) -Pheophytes (brown) -rhodophytes (red)

Talk about Euglenoids.

Unicellular/ No cell wall/ most are photosynthetic/ contain chlorophyll a and b and carotenoids in their chloroplast (Euglena)/ Plasma membrane covered by protein bands or strips called pellicle in cytoplasm/ two flagella one for swimming other for light detection along with stigma (eyespot) (reduced) located close to flagelles/ Have contractile vacuole which protects the cell from rupturing because of surrounding water/ energy source in paramylon polysaccharaides/ plastids rich with pyrenoid/ some are heterotrophic others are misotrophic.

Talk about Bacillariophytes.

AKA Diatoms/ mostly unicellular with some colonies that are important phytaplankton/ plastids contain chlorophyll a and c and fucoxanthin (carotenoid brown) /siliceous walls called frustules formed of two halves, (epi and hypo) fitted together/ have different straition and markings that are species specific/ reserve substances are lipids and carbs water soluble/ chrysolaminarine (vacuoles stored)

Talk about chlorophyta.

Plastids having chlorophyll a and b with carotenoids (same as plants)/ photosynthetic site is pyrenoids (plastids grouped around inclusions of protein nature)/ morphological diversity/ flagellated unicellular or non-flagellated/ colonial thallus/ filamentous/ branched parenchymatous Thallus/ attach by a clamp to a substrate/ contain a nucleus and chloroplast/ not all have cellular organelles/ some contain coencytic fronds/ most are aquatic (planktonic or benthic many are terrestial but in moist environments.

Talk about Pheophyta

AKA brown algae/ Brown or olive green because of chlorophyll masked by large amount of brown carotenoids, called fucoxanthin./ Contain chlorophyll a and c/ never produce starch/ reserve formed by lipids and soluble carb (Laminarin)/ cell wall rich in algin.

Where are brown algae mostly found?

Marine envirnment, live in sea and rockey shores, multicellular and range from microscopic to largest marine algae (Laminaria) thallus consists of single filament in some species having a complex organization.

Talk about the Laminaria.

AKA Kelp, large algae reach several meters in height, thallus includes pedicel stipe attached to rocks by clamp (holdfast) and very long leafy blade (limbo) variable in shape depending on species stipe has a tissue specialized in conduction of nutrients from limbo to stipe and clamp.

Talk about Fucus.

Brown algae of rocks, thallus attached by holdfast, banded erect plate branched dichotomously (continuously) provided with ovoid vesicles filled with air acting as a float.